ЎЗБЕКИСТОН  РЕСПУБЛИКАСИ ОЛИЙ ВА ЎРТА МАХСУС
ТАЪЛИМ ВАЗИРЛИГИ

ЎЗБЕКИСТОН ДАВЛАТ ЖАҲОН ТИЛЛАРИ УНИВЕРСИТЕТИ

ИНГЛИЗ ТИЛИ ЛЕКСИКОЛОГИЯCИ КАФЕДРАСИ

Санакулов Максут Махкамович

Инглиз тили II факултети 404Б ГУРУХ

СЛЕНГ,УНИНГ ТУРЛАРИ ВА МАТНДАГИ ҚЎЛЛАНИШИ, ХУСУСИЯТЛАРИ

52201100-Филология ва тилларни ўқитиш  (инглиз тили) таълим йўналиши бўйича бакалавр даражасини олиш учун

БИТИРУВ  МАЛАКАВИЙ ИШИ

“Ҳимояга тавсия этилади”
“Инглиз тили лексикологияси” кафедраси мудири
__________ МатякубовЖ.И.
2014йил “____” ____________	

    ИЛМИЙ РАҲБАР:
________ Маматқулова Ф.
2014йил “____” ____________	
                                                       
Тошкент – 2014

THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN

THE UZBEKISTAN STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY

THE LEXICOLOGY DEPARTMENT

Sanakulov Maksut Makhkamovich 

 English faculty II group 404B 

QUALIFICATION PAPER

 THE TYPES OF SLANG AND ITS FEATURES AND USAGE IN COTEXTT

5220100–Philology teaching languages  (The English language) for granting the bachelor’s degree

“THE QUALIFICATION PAPER IS ADMITTED TO DEFENSE”
The head of the English Lexicology department
__________Matyakubov J.I.
“____” ____________ 2014	

SCIENTIFIC SUPERVISOR:
________ Mamatkulova  F.
“____” ____________ 2014	

Tashkent – 2014

CONTENTS
Introduction………………………………………………………………..………3-6
Chapter  I. THE PROBLEM  OF  STYLISTIC  CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH  VOCABULARY
                1.1. Neutral, common Literary and common colloquial vocabulary…...7-10
                1.2. The problem of Special Colloquial Layer…………………….…..10-14
Chapter II. DIACHRONIC APPROACH TO THE SLANG
                2.1. Definition and Etymology of the slang…………………………...15-17
                2.2. Origin, uses and reasons for use: attitude towards of slang……....17-24
               2.3. A sketch toward the history of the English slang……………...…..24-29
               2.4. Development of the slang……………………………………….…29-30
               2.5. Creators of slang……………………………….…………………..30-31
Chapter III. SYNCHRONIC APPROACH TO THE SLANG 
Classification of the slang……………………………………………...……….32-38
               3.1. Kinds and forms of slang…………………………………….……38-56
               3.2. The role of the slang in literary text……………………….………56-69
Conclusion………………………………………………………………...……..70-72
The list of used literature………………………………………………..….…..73-76

Introduction
Development of a science as a whole and a linguistic science, in particular is   connected not only to the decision of actually scientific problems, but also with features internal and foreign policy of the state, the maintenance of the state educational standards which are to the generators of progress providing social, economic society. It forms the society capable quickly to adapt in the modern world.
Conditions of reforming of all education system the question of the world assistance to improvement of quality of scientific-theoretical aspect of educational process is especially actually put. As President I.A.Karimov has declared in the program speech “Harmoniously development of generation a basis of progress of Uzbekistan”; “... all of us realize, that achievement of the great purposes put today before us, noble aspirations it is necessary for updating a society, today when we celebrating the 23th anniversary of the National Independence of our Motherland”. The effect and destiny of our reforms carried out in the name of progress and the future, results of our intentions are connected with highly skilled, conscious staff the experts who are meeting the requirements of time.
The given qualification paper is devoted to the study of the Slang in Modern English. Slang is bridge between languages in which words and phrases are used in new or unusual ways. Many slang terms are expressive humor and vivid. Some of them are crude and offence. 
Slang also is  a language of a highly colloquial type considered as below the level of educated standard speech and consisting either of new words or current word employed in some special sense.
We use slang more often in a speech then in a written form and more often with the friends than with the strangers. Slang thus resembles colloquialism, which are expressions used in every day conversation but not considered appropriate for formal speech or written form.
          The actuality of the work  is due to ever interesting and topical problem of slang and its usage in Modern English.
 	The aim of the qualification paper is to analyze a slang expression, even it may be a new word or it may be an old word with a new meaning and establishing ways of slang and its explanations in English language. According to this main aim of the investigation the following particular tasks are put forward.
The tasks are:
-	To define the meaning of the slang.
-	To investigate the problem of special colloquial layer.
-	To work with the origin, uses and reasons for usage of the slang.
-	To clarify the kinds and forms of slang.
-	To analyze the role of the slang in literary text
The material includes:
1. Different types of dictionaries;
2. The scientific literature on Lexicology, Etymology, Historical Linguistics, Typology, Stylistics.
The object of investigation in our qualification is slang as a source of enriching the English vocabulary.
The subject matter of this qualification paper is to study the function of slang in Modern English.
The scientific novelty of the work 
The novelty of the qualification paper is determined by the necessity of the study of the slang which form large layer English vocabulary. 
The practical value.
The value of the research is that material and the results of the given qualification work can serve the material for theoretical course of lexicology, stylistics, typology as well as can be used for practical lessons in translation, home-reading, conversational practice and current events.
The methods used in the paper are comparative, componential, diachronic, and synchronic methods.
The theoretical significance of this qualification paper is that the theoretical positions of this paper can be used in compiling dictionaries and delivering lectures on lexicology and stylistics.
The structure of this qualification paper includes: Introduction, Chapter I, Chapter II, Chapter III, Conclusion and the list of used literature.
 Introduction states the actuality, purposes, tasks and scientific and practical value of the work.
Chapter I, II and III are the main part of the work which includes the theory and practice of the work.
Chapter I deal with the problem of special colloquial layer. Like any linguistic issue, the classification of the vocabulary here suggested is for purely stylistic purposes. This is important for the course in as much as stylistic devices are based on the interplay of different stylistic aspect of the word. It follows than that a discussion of the ways.
Chapter II is devoted to the study the definition, etymology, origin, reasons for usage, and development of the slang. Slang is easy enough to use, but very hard to write about the facile convincingness that a subject apparently so simple would, at first sight, seem to demand.
Chapter III deal with the analysis of the form and types of slang. Also, this chapter gives information about the usage of the slang in the literary text.
Conclusion deals with the theoretical and practical results of a paper.
The source deals with the list of literature used in paper. While writing present qualification paper we used the books written by great scholars such as: The English Word by Arnold I.V, A Course of Lexicology by Ginzburg R.S, A Course of lexicology by Buronov J.B. Besides above mentioned literatures we took information from Internet, Work Book Encyclopedia.

Chapter  I. THE PROBLEM OF STYLISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH VOCABULARY
1.1.	The problem of stylistic classification of English vocabulary
Like any linguistic issue, the classification of the vocabulary here suggested is for purely stylistic purposes. This is important for the course in as much as stylistic devices are based on the interplay of different stylistic aspect of the word. It follows than that a discussion of the ways. The English vocabulary can be classified from a stylistic point of view should be given proper attention.
In order to get more or less clear idea of the word-stock of any language, it must be presented as a system, the elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet independent. Some linguists, who clearly see the systematic character of the language as a whole, deny, however, the possibility of systematically classifying the vocabulary. They say that the word-stock of any language is so large and so heterogeneous that it is impossible to formalize it and therefore present it any system. Indeed, the coinage of new lexical units, the development of meaning, the differentiation of words according to their stylistic evaluation and their spheres of usage, the correlation between meaning and concept and other problems connected with the vocabulary are so multifarious and varied that the difficult to grasp the systematic character of the word-stock of a language, though it co-exists with the system of other levels-phonetics, morphology, and syntax.
The word-stock of a language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as independent. A special branch of linguistic science lexicology has done much to classify vocabulary.
For our purpose, i.e for linguistic stylistics a special type of classification,  viz Stylistic classification, is most important. In accordance with the already mentioned division of language into literary and colloquial, we may represent the whole  of the word stock of the English language as being divided into three main layers:
1.	The literary layer
2.	The neutral layer
3.	The colloquial layer
The literary layer and colloquial layer contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with the all the subgroups within the layer. This common property which unites the different groups of words within the layer may  be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this makes the layer more and less stable.  The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively spoken character. It is that makes it unstable.
The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and all spheres of human activity. It is this that makes the layer the most stable of all.
The literary layer of the words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English have no local or dialectal character.
The colloquial layer of the words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not frequently limited to a define language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.
The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:
1.	Common literary
2.	Terms and learned words
3.	Poetic words
4.	Archaic words
5.	Barbarisms and foreign words
6.	Literary coinages including nonce words
The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups:
a)	Common colloquial words 
b)	 Slang
c)	Jargonisms
d)	Professional words
e)	Dialectal words
f)	Vulgar words
g)	Colloquial coinages.
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary.
Neutral, common Literary and common colloquial vocabulary
Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy . it is the neutral stock of words, that is so prolific in the production of the new meaning.
The wealth of the neutral stratum of the words is often overlooked. This is due to their inconspicuous character. But, their faculty for assuming new meanings and generating the new stylistic variants is often quite amazing. This generative power of the neutral words in the English language multiplied by the very nature of the language itself.
It has been established that most neutral English words are monosyllabic character, as in the process of development form Old English to Modern English, most of the parts of the speech last their distinguishing suffixes. This phenomenon has led to the development of conversion as the most productive means of the word building. Unlike all the groups the neutral group of the words cannot be considered as having a special stylistic coloring, whereas both literary and colloquial words have a definite stylistic coloring.
Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and polished speech. One can always tell a literary word from colloquial word. There as on for this lies in certain objective features of the literary layer of the words. 
What this objective features are, is difficult to say because as yet no objective criteria have been worked out. But one of them undoubtedly is that literary units stand in opposition to colloquial units. This is especially apparent when pairs of synonyms , literary and colloquial, can be formed which stand in contrasting relation. Eg 
Colloquial                         Neutral                        Literary
Kid                                      child                            infant
Daddy                                father                            parent
Chap                                 fellow                            associaty
Get out                             go away                         retire
    	It goes without saying that this synonyms are not only stylistic but ideographic as well, there is a definition though slight semantic difference between the words. But this is almost always the case with synonyms. There are very few absolute synonyms in English just as there are in any language. The main distinction  between synonyms remains stylistic. But stylistic difference may be of various kinds: it may  lie in the emotional tension connected in a word, or in the sphere of application, or in the degree of the quality denoted. Colloquial words are always more emotionally colored than literary words. The neutral stratum of the words, as the term itself implies has no degree of emotiveness, nor have they any distinctions in the share of usage.
In the diagram   common colloquial vocabulary is represented is represented as overlapping into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary which, as we shall see later, falls out of standard English all together. Just as common literary vocabulary lack homogeneity so do common colloquial words and set expressions. Some of the lexical items belonging to this stratum are close to the non-standard vocabulary. Other words approach to the neutral bulk of the English vocabulary.
1.2.	Problem of Special Colloquial layer
Nonstandard vocabulary composed of words or senses characterized primarily by connotation of the extreme informality and usually by a currency not limited to a particular region. It is composed typically of coinages or arbitrarily changed words, clipped or shortened forms, extravagant, forced or facetious figures of speech or verbal novelties.
Language consists of the words and expressions that have escaped from the cant, jargon, argot (and to a lesser extent from dialectal, nonstandard and taboo speech) of specific subgroups of society so that they are known and used by an appreciable percentage of the general population, even though the words and expressions often retain some associations with the subgroups that originally used and popularized them. Thus. Slang is a middle ground for the words and expressions that have become too popular to be any longer considered as a part of the more restricted categories, but that are not yet (and never become) acceptable or popular enough  to be considered informal or standard. 
Under the terms of a such definition, “cant” comprises the restricted, non-technical words and expressions of any particular group, as an occupational, age, ethic, hobby or special-interest group. (cool, uptight, do you thing were youth cant of the late 1960s before they become slang) 
“Jargon” is defined as a restricted, technical and shoptalk words and expressions of any particular group, as an  occupational, trade, scientific, artistic, criminal, or other groups. (final is used by printers and by students. Fannie May by moneyman, preemie by obstetricians were jargon before they become slang)
“Argot” is merely the combined cant and jargon of thieves, criminals, or any other underworld group. (Hit is used by armed robbers)
Slang fills a necessary niche in all languages, occupying a middle ground between the standard and the informal words accepted by the general public and the special words and expressions known only to comparatively small social subgroups. It can serve as  a bridge or a barrier, either helping both old and new words that have been used as “insider” terms by  a specific group of people to enter the language of the general public or on the other hand, preventing them from doing so. Thus, for many words,  become standard or informal. For many other words slang is testing ground that shows them to be too restricted in use, not as appealing as standard synonyms or unnecessary faddish or unacceptable for standard or informal speech. For still is third group of words and expressions slang becomes not a final testing ground that either accepts or rejects them for general use but becomes a vast limbo, a permanent holding ground an area of speech that a word never leaves. Thus, during various times in history, American slang has provided  cowboy, blizzard, okay, racketeer, phone, gas, movie for standard or informal speech. It has tried and finally rejected 
Conbobberation - disturbance
Krib – room or apartment
Lucifer- match
Tomato - girl
Jab  - fabulous 
From standard or informal speech. It has held other words such as bones (dice) used since the 14th century, and the beat it (go away) used since 16th century, in a permanent grasp neither passing them on to the standard or informal speech nor rejecting them from popular long term use.
Slang words cannot be distinguished from other words by sound or meaning. Indeed, all slang words were once cant, jargon, argot, dialect, nonstandard or taboo. For example, the America word 
to neck (kiss and caress) was originally student cant;
flattop (an aircraft carrier) was originally navy jargon;
pineapple (a bomb or hand grenade) was originally criminal argot. Such words did not change their sound or meaning  when they become slang. Many slang words, such as blizzard, mob, movie, phone, gas others have become informal and standard and, of course, did not change sound or meaning when they did so. In fact most slang words are homonyms of standard words, spelled or pronounced just like their standard counterparts as for example, American slang cabbage (money), cool (relaxed). Of course, the words cabbage, cool sound alike in their ordinary standard use and in their slang use. Each word sounds just as appealing or unappealing, dull or colourful in its standard as in its slang use. Also, the meaning of the cabbage and money, cool and relaxed, are the same, so it cannot be said that the connotations of slang words are any more colourful or racy than the meanings of the standard words.
All language, countries and periods of history have slang. This is true because they all have had words varying degrees of social acceptance and popularity. 
All segments of society use some slang including the most educated, cultivated speakers and writers. In fact, this is part of the definition of slang. For example, George Washington used redcoat (British soldier)
Winston Churchill booze (liquor)
 	The same linguistic processes are used to create and popularize slang as are used to create and popularize all other words. That is, all words are created and popularized in the same general ways. They are labeled slang only according to their current social acceptance long after creation and popularization.
 	Slang is not the language of the underworld, nor does most of it necessarily come from the underworld. The main sources of slang change from period to period. Thus, in one period of American slang, frontiersmen, cowboys, hunters, may have been the main source, during the some parts of the 1920s and 1930s the speech of baseball players and criminals may have been the main source at other times the vocabulary of the jazz musicians, soldiers, or college students may have been the main source.
To fully understand slang one must remember that a word’s use, popularity, and acceptability can change. Words can change in social level, moving in any direction. Thus, some standard words of William Shekspeare’s day are found only in certain modern day British dialect or in the dialect of the southern United States.
Words that are taboo in one era  can become accepted standard words in later era.
So, the characteristic features of language shows that each language divides into literary and colloquial layer. To sum up the layers of the language I can suggest that Language is dynamic, and at any given time hundreds and perhaps thousands, of the words and expressions are in the process of changing from one level to another, of becoming more acceptable or less acceptable, of becoming more popular or less popular. But, anyway each layer of the vocabulary of language has its main place among users of language.

Chapter II. Diachronic approach to the slang
2.1.	Definition  and Etymology of the slang
Slang is easy enough to use, but very hard to write about the facile convincingness that a subject apparently so simple would, at first sight, seem to demand. But the simplest things are often the hardest to define, certainly the hardest to discuss, for it is usually at first sight only that their simplicity is what strikes one the most forcibly. And slang, after all, “is a peculiar kind of vagabond language, always hanging on the out shirts of legitimate speech, but continually straying or forcing its way into the most respectable company”. Circumstance conspires to complicate the issue, for – as we read in the Encyclopedia Britannica –“at one moment a word or locution may be felt definitely as slang, but in another set of circumstances the same word or locution may be not produce this impression at all”.
In the Oxford English Dictionary, that monumentum are perennius which is almost insolently cheap for the large amount of “brass” that it costs to buy, Sir William Craigie gives four separate headings to slang, and this is for the noun alone. He implies that these headings probably represent four separate groups and origins, but adds that, in the one strictly relevant class, “some of the senses may represent independent words”; on the other hand he does not rule out the possibility that certain of the many senses of slang may be interrelated either etymologically or semantically. The five senses approximating to that in general use since about 1850 – to the free and easy, “shirtsleeves”, essentially spoken language with which we are concerned – are Cant (i.e., thieves slang), other very low and vulgar speech, the jargon of a trade or profession, abuse or impertinence, and as in Foote’s play, the Orators, 1762- humbug or nonsense. The Oxford definition of slang in our sense is, despite Professor G.H.Mcknight’s doubt “if an exact definition of slang is possible”, admirally clear: “language of a highly colloquial type, considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or of current words employed in some special sense”. A rather different definition, which is also to some extent complementary is that of Mr.H.W.Fowler: “ the diction that results from the favorite game among the young and lively of playing with words and renaming things and actions, some invent new words, or mutilate or misapply the old, for the pleasure of novelty, and others catch up such words for the pleasure of being in the fashion”. In this specific sense – as indeed in that of a vocational jargon – slang is not recorded before the early nineteenth century: as meaning cant, whether noun or adjective, it occurs about 1750. The etymology of slang – that prize-problem word – is dubious,  for whereas the Oxford Dictionary considers any connection with certain Norwegian forms in – slang to be unlikely, Dr.Bradley and Professors Weekley and Wyld think that cognates are furnished by slenjaord, a new slang word, by slenja-namm, a nickname, and slenja-kjeften, to sling the jaw, i.e., to abuse. The “sling” sense gains probability from two sides: the O.E.D’s quotation, dated about 1400. But Eneas be war he abyes.
The bolde words that [he] dede sclyng, and low colloquial usage. The lattes has sling language or words, to talk, and sling the bat, to speak the vernaculars, especially to speak the language of that foreign country (the Tommy in 1914 is often used it for ”to speak French, Arabic”) where one happens to be; but, although with both of these we should certainly compare the even more highly colloquial sling off at, to taunt, to jeer at a person, which approximates to the less familiar slang, to scold, to address very abusively, we must not allow ourselves to be will-o’-the-wisped into taking any notice of spin the bat, which, popular with the Tommies in India during the nineteenth century, represents a deliberate variant of sling the bat, but has a rather different meaning – to speak with great gusto, considerable vividness; and remarkable vigor-obviously analogous to spin a yarn, to tell a story. We can, however, indulge ourselves to the extent of finding the theatrical use, in the ‘eighties, of slanging to mean singing, relevant to our purpose, for singing in music halls was so called because of the quantity of spoken slang inserted – often by way of a “gag” – between the verses of a song.
Slang has from about 1850, been the accepted term for “illegitimate” colloquial speech; but even since then, especially chiefly among the cultured and the pretentious has argot. Now argot, being merely the French for slang, has no business to be used thus – it can rightly be applied only to French slang or French cant: and lingo properly means a simplified language that like Beach-la-Mar and Pidgin-English, represents the distortion of (say) English by coloured peoples speaking English indeed but adapting it to their own phonetics and grammar. Jargon, originally – as in chaucer – used of the warbling of birds, has long been employed loosely and synonymously for slang, but it should be reserved for the technicalities of science, the professions, and the trades: though, for such technicalities, did duty from 1718 until 1850 or so, but even in the eighteenth century applies to the slang of criminals (i.e. cant), not to slang in our wider sense. Before 1850, slang meant all definitely vulgar language except cant, or at least this was its prevailing acceptation after 1800, before which (as Grose’s invaluable dictionary shows) it served as an alternative to flash in the sense of cant. Nor, after 1850, was slang accepted with general good grace, for in 1873, we find Hotten protesting against the restriction of the term to “those lowest words only which are used by the dangerous classes and the lowest grades of society”. As slang is used by every class, and as this fact is now everywhere recognized, the stigma once attached to the word has long since been removed; in 1911, indeed, a foreign research-student at Cambridge could sightly say: “It is impossible to acquire a through knowledge of English [or of any other language, for that matter] without being familiar with slang and vulgarism. Whoever is initiated … will be at a loss to understand many of the masterpieces of English literature. May… he will scarcely be able even to understand an English newspaper”.

2.2.	Origin, Uses and Reasons for Use: Attitudes towards slang
 	Slang, being the quintessence of colloquial speech, must always be related to convenience rather than to scientific laws, grammatical rules and philosophical ideals. As it originates, so it flourishes best, in colloquial speech. “Among the impulses  which lead to the invention of slang”. Dr.Bradley remarked some years ago, the two most important seem to be the desire to secure increased vivacity and the desire to secure increased sense of intimacy in the use of language”. The most favourable conditions are those or “crowding & excitement and artificial life. … Any sudden excitement pr peculiar circumstance is quite sufficient to originate & set going a score of slang words; as John Camden Hotten, a publisher and lexicographer, more sinned against then sinning, noted in the excellent short history that prefaces his valuable collection of Mid-Victorian and other slang. Its origin and usage are lit with interest if we remember one of the primary laws: slang is not used merely as a means of self-expression: it connotes personality: “its coinage and circulation comes rather from the wish of the individual to distinguish himself by addity or grotesque humor”. Another aspect is presented by Mr.Earle Welby when he says: “Some slang originates in an honorable discontent with the battered or bleached phrases in far too general use”, this fresh slang being further described by him as “the plain man’s poetry, the plain man’s aspiration from penny plain to two pence coloured”.
But the most interesting pronouncements on the origins and uses of slang are those of Mr.Mencken and M.Niceforo. The former is so illuminating that to paraphrase him were an impertinence. “What slang actually consists of” he says, “doesn’t depend … upon intrinsic qualities, but upon the surrounding circumstances. It is the user that determines the matter, and particularly the user’s habitual way of thinking. If he chooses words carefully, with a full understanding of their meaning and savour, then no word that he uses seriously will belong to slang, but if his speech is made up chiefly of terms poll-parroted, and he has no sense of their shades and limitations, then slang will bulk largely in his vocabulary. In its origin it is nearly always respectable [comparatively!]: it is devised, not by the stupid populace [what about the cockneys?], but by individuals of wit and ingenuity; as Whitney says, it is a product of an ‘exuberance of mental activity, and the natural delight of language – making’. But when its inventions happen to strike the popular fancy and are adopted by the mob, they are soon worn threadbare and so lose all piquancy and significance, and in Whitney’s words, become ‘incapable of expressing anything that is real’. This is the history of such slang phrases as …. How’s your poor feet?’ …’Have a heart!’, ‘This is the life’.
Mr. Alfredo Niceforo, a widely travelled Italian, notes that, as in general speech so inevitably in slang, one speaks as one judges and one judges according to how one feels. His opinions on this subject, together with its relation to the influence of groups, are of first-rate importance. “Every social fact – and the language over group is the social fact”, writes Niceforo, “is the result of two classes of cause: personal (or biological) causes, represented by the physiological and psychological characteristics of the individual: and external (or mycological) causes, represented by the great accumulation of the social pressures, economic and geographical and other factors, which so powerfully influence mankind”. He shows how language varies in passing form one social group to another and even in the different situations in which any one person may find himself. He indicates the further distinction that sometimes it is feeling as sentiment, sometimes one’s profession or trade which determines the nature of one’s speech, whether it be standard or unconventional for instance, children and lunatics speak very much as their emotions dictate; soldiers have a multitude of words and phrases that reflect their daily existence in barracks, on the march, in bivouac, or in the front line. The specialization that characteristics every vocation leads naturally to a specialized vocabulary, to the invention of new words or the recharging of old words. Such special words and phrases become slang only if they change their meaning or are applied in other ways. Motoring, aviation and the wireless have already supplied us with a large number of slang terms. But, whatever the source, personality and one’s surroundings (social or occupational) are the two co-efficient, the two chief factors, the determining causes of the nature of slang, as they are of language in general and of style.
Why is slang used at all? That question like a small child’s is a natural one to ask, but a difficult one to answer. Reasons have occurred to the writes, who however is not quite states as to considers that they account for every slang expression used in the past, much less every slang expression that will be used by the bright lads, sprightly lasses and naughty old men of the future. That all the following reasons why slang is used are either actually or potentially operative he is nevertheless as sure as a more man can be and he would like to add that the order in which they are set down is not so haphazard as it may sum.
According the British lexicographer  Eric Partridge’ opinion people use the slang for any of at least fifteen reasons:
(1) In sheer high spirits, by the young in heart as well as by the young in years; “just for the fun of the thing”; in playfulness or waggishness.
(2) As an exercise either in wit and ingenuity or in humour. (The motive behind this is usually self-display or snobbishness, emulation or responsiveness, delight in virtuosity).
(3) To be “different”, to be novel.
(4) To be picturesque (either positively or – as in the wish to avoid insipidity-negatively.
(5) To be unmistakably arresting, even startling.
(6) To escape from clichйs, or to be brief and concise.(actuated by impatience with existing terms).
(7) To enrich the language. (This deliberateness is rare save among the well-educated Cockneys forming the most notable exception; it is literary rather than spontaneous).
(8) To lend an air of solidity, concreteness, to the abstract: of earthiness to the idealistic; of immediacy and oppositeness to the remote. (In the cultured the effort is usually premeditated, while in the uncultured it is almost always unconscious when it is not rather subconscious).
(9a) To lessen the sting of or on the other hand to give additional point to, a refusal, a rejection, a recantation;
(9b) To reduce, perhaps also to disperse, the solemnity, the pomposity, the excessive seriousness of a conversation (or of a piece of writing);
(9c) To soften the tragedy, lighten or to “prettify” the inevitability of death or madness, or to mask the ugliness or the pity of profound turpitude (e.g., treachery, ingratitude): and/or thus to enable the speaker or his auditor or both to endure, to “carry on”.
(10) To speak or write down to an inferior, or to amuse a superior public; or merely to be on a colloquial level with either one’s audience or one’s subject matter.
(11) For ease of social intercourse.(Not to be confused or merged with the preceding).
(12) To induce either friendliness or intimacy of a deep or a durable kind. (Same remark).
(13) To show that one belongs to a certain school, trade, or profession, artistic or intellectual set, or social class; in brief, to be “in the swim” or to establish contact.
(14) Hence, to show or prove that someone is not “in the swim”.
(15) To be secret – not understood by those around one.(children, students, lovers, members of political secret societies and criminals in or out of prison, innocent persons in prison are the chief exponents).
Such critics as Hotten, Mencken and Niceforo are almost genial in their attitude towards slang, but others are scornful. S early as 1825 I.P.Thomas in My Thought Book, inveighed thus: “The language of slang is the conversation of fools. Men of discretion will not prevent language to the unprofitable purposes of conversational mimicry…. The friends of literature will never adopt it, as it is actively opposed to pure and grammatical diction”. In our own century the authors of Words and their ways condemn slang on the ground that, being evanescent, vague, and ill-defined, slang has a deleterious effect on those who use it often, for it tends to remove all those delicate shades of meaning which are at the root of a good style; they point out that it is a lazy man’s speech; and assert that when a slang word becomes definite in meaning it has almost ceased to slang. Perhaps a fairer conception is that of the Merton Professor of English language at Oxford “While slang is essentially part of familiar and colloquial speech, it is not necessarily either incorrect or vulgar in its proper place”, which as the Fowlers say, “is in real life”. That is, in conversation, -for, the Fowlers continue, “as style is the great antiseptic; so slang is the great corrupting matter; it is perishable, and infects what is round it”. The same thought is conveyed from a different angle by Professor McKnight, who remarks that, “originating as slang expressions often do, in an insensibility to the meaning of legitimate words, the use of slang checks an acquisition of a command over recognized modes of expression … [and] must result in atrophy of the faculty of using language”. This applies mainly to authors and orators. But no real stylist, no one capable of good speaking or good writing is likely to be harmed by the occasional employment of slang; provided that he is conscious of the fact, he can even employ it both frequently and freely without stultifying his mind, impoverishing his vocabulary, or vitiating the taste and the skill that he brings to the using of that vocabulary. Except in formal and dignified writing and in professional speaking, a vivid and extensive slang is perhaps preferable to a jejune and meager vocabulary of standard English; on the other hand, it will hardly be denied that whether in writing or in speech, a sound though restricted vocabulary of standard English is preferable to an equally small vocabulary of slang, however vivid may be that slang.
The same contradictoriness applies to the various attempts to set forth the primary characteristics of slang. Greenough and Kintredge, at the beginning of their thoughtful it somewhat reactionary chapter on Slang and Legitimate speech, say that “slang is commonly made by the use of harsh, violent, or ludicrous metaphors, obscure analogies, meaningless words, and expressions derived from the less known and less esteemed vocations or customs”, and, twenty pages further on, admit that “it is sometimes humorousm witty, and not seldom picturesque”. A much beater thumb-nail sketch is that of Niceforo: “concrete terms, vivid metaphors, brilliant turns of phrase, contrasts, ellipses, and abbreviations”. In fairness, however, to the American professors, it is to added they note that slang, so far from being a novelty, is the most vital aspect of language, the only speech in which linguistic processes can be observed in unrestricted activity: as they remark, there is no primary difference between the processes of slang and those of standard speech. Slang may and often does fill a gap in accepted language; as J.Brandel Matthews had observed in 1893 “in most cases a man can say best what he has to say without lapsing into slang: but then a slangy expression which actually tells us something is better than the immaculate sentence empty of everything but the consciousness of its own property”.
But there is a decided hint of “It isn’t done” in a few of the general accounts of slang. After reading Hotten is famous justification –“ the squeamishness which tries to ignore the existence of slang fails signally, for not only in the streets and in the prisons, but at the bar on the bench, in the pulpit, and in the Houses of Parliament, does slang make itself heard, and, as the shortest and safest means to an end, understood too it is diverting to arrive at the opinion that the word associations of this “pariah” branch of language are “low, or at least, undignified, and perhaps disgusting”; it they obtain the franchise of respectability by becoming accepted, for other than trivial or frivolous purposes, by the users of standard speech, then their lowly origins will probably be forgotten and they will become pure as driven snow. This view smacks of the year in which it was expressed – 1902; but the Fowlers are almost as severe. ”Foreign words and slang are, as spurious ornaments, on the same level… The effect of using quotation marks with slang is merely to convert a mental into a moral weakness”. But they are very sound on the quarters from which slang may come. Taking the averagely intelligent middle-class man as the norm, they show that he can usually detect with ease such words as come from “below” and add that these constitute the best slang for many such terms assume their place in the language as “words that will last”, and will not, like many from “above”, die off after a brief vogue; from the same direction, however, derive such colourless counters as nice, awful, blooming (this last, by the way, is on the ware). Words from above are less easily detected: phenomenal, epoch-making, true inwardness, psychological moment, philistine” are being subjected to that use, at once over – frequent and inaccurate, which produces one kind of slang. But the average man, seeing from what exalted quarters they come is dazzled into admiration and hardly knows them for what they are”. The slang from “the sides” or from “the centre” consists of those words which belonging at first to a profession or trade, a per suit, a game of sport, have invaded general colloquial speech – and very often the printed page. “Among these a man is naturally less critical of what comes from his own daily concerns, that is, in his view, from the centre”. These two lexicographers and grammarians acutely caution us that, in any collection of slang words and phrases, the degree of recognizability will depend largely upon whether the occupation, for example, is familiar or not, “though sometimes the familiarity will disguise, and sometimes it will bring out the slanginess”.
2.3.	A Sketch towards the history of English slangIt is probably safe to assume that at first there was speech, then speech formal and informal; then formal informal, and slangy; finally, formal, informal, slangy and canting.
Slang therefore, is almost as old as connected speech itself; and, knowing the characteristics of urban life, we may assume that slang dates from the massing of population in cities. Since it represents a mainly spontaneous indication and manifestation of processes that are for the most part unconscious, and since the “human, all too human” impulse towards the unconventional has always existed (with the natural result that unconventionality in language would not lag far behind), slang must, in any country, have arisen almost as soon as there was a colloquial speech at all. “It is”, writes Sechrist, “a universal impulse which tends to manifest itself when a vernaculas becomes crystallized in a literature and more especially when a literature becomes classic”: not that it waits for either of these lengthy processes to begin.
As Hotten has remarked, “it we are to believe implicitly the saying of the wise man that” there is nothing new under the sun, the ‘bloods’ of buried Ninevah, with their knotty and door-matty-looking boards, may have cracked slang jokes on the step of Sennacherib’s palace; while the stocks and stones of ancient Egypt, and the bricks of venerable and used – up Babylon, may be covered with slang hieroglyphs, which, being perfectly unknown to modern antiquaries, have long been stumbling -–blocks to the philologist”. And as Charles Nackay suggested, “if we had correct and copious vocabularies of the slang of the Greeks, the Romans, and the Phonicians…, what floods of light might be thrown for us on [their] inner life and manners”.
But I have not the erudition to discuss the slang element in Phonician, Sanskrit, Chinese, or Aztec, and it is with childish satisfaction that I record my belief that there is very little to be known on these hazily distant subjects. With classic slang, however, we are on rather surer ground, which holds much more of Latin than of Greek.
In Latin literature there are numerous slang words and phrases in dramatists like Plautus, poetical satirists like Horace and Juvenal, and fashionable writers like Petronius. The last, arbiter elegant arum to Nero, introduced into Irimalchio’s Dinner many of the choicest slang terms of the Roman smart set: the setting was apt, being that of a Christmas dinner-party. As Professor Mackail has observed, “it is full of solecisms and popular slang: and where the scene lies… in the semi-Greek seaports of southern Italy, it passes into what is almost a dialect of its own the lingua franca of the Mediterranean under the Empire, a dialect of mixed Latin and Greek”.
The more civilized became the Roman empire, the more general became the use of slang: but this holds of every European country, as indeed it does of north America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and British India. In the time of Marcus Aurelius, says Walter Pater, in his strange and beautiful novel, Marius the Epicurean, ‘while the learned dialect was yearly becoming more and more barbarously pedantic, the colloquial idiom, on the other hand, offered a thousand chance-toast gems of racy or pictures expression, rejected or ungathered by what claimed to be classical Latin”. Of this passage George H.McKnight pertinently says it is nevertheless clear that classical Latin had, at an earlier stage, seized upon some of those racy expressions, for reputable English words are taken direct from a Latin that, before its acceptance by the literary language, was quite obviously slang. “It has more than once been pointed out”, this American professor reminds us, “that recalcitrant in its origin was equivalent to modern ‘Kicker”, apprehend to ‘catch on’, assault and insult to ‘jump on’, impose to ‘put over on’, excoriate to ‘take the hide off’. In the same way polite, in its origin, was equivalent to ‘smooth’ [‘or ‘such a little gentlemen!’], diatribe to ‘rub in’; fool [literally, ‘bellows’], to ‘wind bag’ or ‘blow hard’, effrontery to ‘face’ or ‘cheek’, interrupt to ‘break in on’, precocious (literally, ‘early ripe’) to ‘half-baked’, delirious (literally, ‘out of the furrow’) to ‘off one’s trolley’ [Anglice, ‘off one’s roker’], supercilious to ‘high brow’, disproved to ‘crooked’ [or ‘crook’].
There‘re instances in which we are almost sure of our ground. One of the most famous of all Latin slang words is test, a favorite among the soldiers of the late Empire: literally a brick, later a pot, it first found its way into literature in the Epigrams of the fourth century poet, magnus Ausonius, who has test a hominus, nudumiam cute calvitium, “(the) man’s head already bald on the top”. It is thus closely analogous to the English slang nut, conk (properly conch), and block. Equally famous and likewise due to the soldiery are paganus (pagan) and salarium (salary), and from the same source comes the less famous vasa colligere, to gather up the pots and pans, hence to pack up, hence to break camp, so used later in Classical Latin by Cicero and livy, while Caesar, the greatest military writer of all antiquity, has vasa conclamare, to give the signal for packing up Salarium, besides other things, meant salt money, the soldier’s allowance for the purchase of salt (sal), and this sense was soon extended to his wage, later – in post – Augustan times – to salaries in general: “compare our colloquial ‘earn his salt’ and ‘pin-money’. “Paganus from pagus, the country or a country district, was used by the Roman soldier to signify yokel, by way of contempt for a civilian (compare Ripling’s lousy civilian and the 1914-18 military slang civ(v)y) or for an incompetent soldier, and when the early church adopted miles (Christi) in the figurative sense of soldier (of Christi) paganus was also taken over from colloquial Latin, as its natural opposite to connote one who was not a good soldier of Christi”. The locus classicus on the etymolgy is that in the historian Paulus Orosius (early fifth century): ex-locorum agrestium compities et pagis pagani vocantur, they are called pagans from the cross-roads and districts of the rural areas. Our dignified chivalry comes, through the French, from the Roman soldier’s slang name for his horse caballus.
The religious association of paganus is particularly interesting, because it has been pointed out that much Latin phraseology as used by the early Christians is nothing but the slang of those humble classes who, almost exclusively, made up the quiet Christian communities in Rome. Among the words cited as being the terms of particular trades and occupations transferred to the life of a Christian community are opus, operatio, applied to an act of faith; eraditicio; adificatio; figulatio, not only of potter’s work, but of the creation of mankind (the Potter; God); pascua; piscina; piscicuti, of persons newly baptized. When St.Augustine employed ossum, the “town slang” for os, a bone, that great writer – who dedicated to religion what he might so notably have given to literature – remarked “Better that grammarians blame me than that the people fail to understand me”. Ossum was how or Vulgar Latin, as were the other words mentioned in this paragraph. Low Latin (obviously) is not slang, but it becomes slang when transferred to other uses, as these lowly Christians transferred it; it also becomes slang when it is used as St.Augustine employed it, its very self-consciousness made it such.
The Middle Ages are for us the dark ages. The history of European slang begins in the thirteenth century, when we find the word hotwalsh, now Rotwelsh, the name for the slang of vagabonds. It is a significant fact that the earliest records, whether for Germany, france, or England are of thieves, not of general slang. A glossary of Rotwelsh appeared about 1490; some twenty years later we come on the famous Liber Vagatorium, in which Martin Luther had a hand and which John Camden Hotten published in his own translation in 1859, as the Book of vagabonds and Beggars; the German subtitle was Der better Orden. “the most remarkable feature of the jargon represented in these early glossaries”, remark the Encyclopedia Britannica writers, “is the large number of Hebrew words that it contains. There are some words from Italian, as began, to beg, from pregare, and barlen, to speak, from parlare. The language of gypsels seems to have contributed nothing, nor are there any words from Latin or Greek. Some of the words are ordinary german words used metaphorfically like wetterhan (weathercock) for hat, zwicker (twitcher) for the handman, brief (letter) for a playing card. Others are descriptive compounds such as breitfuss (bread-foot) for a duck or goose, or derivatives formed by means of the suffixes –hart (or –art) and –ling …”.
In France, the earliest records of slang again it is cant – occur about the middle of the fifteenth century in the vocabulary of the Coquillards, Les Compagnons de la Coquille, and in some of the poems of Francois Villon, himself a Coquillard and a bohemian of the bohemians. These ballades, apart from a few words, remain a mystery. “Paroir and Montjoye (for which latter the less ironical monte a regret was substituted) are nicknames for the scaffold. Acolez, hanged, corresponds to the English [cant] scragged. The symonymous gru seems to be an onomotopeic formation suggestive of choking. There are some derivatives formed with the suffix –art: riffart is a police officer, abnorant, fog. A few words from foreign languages occur: audi nos, prayer, is the Latin audi nos of the litanies; arton, bread, is obviously Greek…. Moller, to eat, may perhaps be the Latin, molare, to grind. Ansa, the ear, is no doubt the Latin ansa, handle. This ‘thieves’ slang of Villon’s is known as Jobelin, and it is worth nothing that le jargon, cant, is found twice in the thirteenth century.
There are early records of slang also in Italy and Spain: these, too, are of thieves’ slang.

2.4.	Development of slang
Slang emanates from conflicts in values, sometimes superficial, often fundamental. When an individual applies language in a new way to express hostility, ridicule, or contempt, often with the sharp wit, he may be creating slang, but the new expression will perish unless it is picked up by others. If the speaker is a member of a group that finds that his creation projects the emotional reaction of its members towards an idea, person, or social institution the expression will gain currency according to the unanimity within the group. A new slang term is usually widely in a subculture before it appears in the dominant culture. Thus slang, eg:
Sucker
Honkey
Shave – tail
Jerk
Expresses the attitudes not always derogatory of one group or class toward the values of another. Slang sometimes stems from within the group,, satirizing or burlesquing its own values and attitudes. Eg
Shotgun wedding
Cake eater
Greasy spoon
Slang then is produced largely by social forces rather than by an individual speaker or writer who single-handed, (like Horace Walpole, who coined “serendipity” more than 200 years ago) creates and establishes a word in the language. This is one reason why it is determine the origin of the slang.

2.5.	Creators of slang
Civilized society tends to divide into a dominant culture and various subcultures and various subcultures that flourish within the dominant framework. The subcultures show specialized linguistic phenomena, varying widely in form and content that depend on the nature of the groups and their relations to each other and to the dominant culture. The shock value of the slang stems largely from the verbal transfer of the values of a subculture to diametrically opposed values in the dominant culture. Names such as fuzz, pig, fink, bull and dick for the policemen were not created by officers of the law. Occupational groups are legion and while in most respects they identify with the dominant culture, there is just enough social and linguistic hostility to maintain group solidarity. Terms such as scab, strike breaker, company-man, goon were highly charged words in the era in which labor began to organize United States; they are not used lightly even today, though they have been taken into the standard language.
In additional occupational and professional groups, there are many other types of subcultures that supply slang. These includes sexual deviants, narcotic addicts, ghetto groups, institutional populations, agricultural sub societies, political organizations, the armed forces, Gypsies and sport groups of many varieties. Some of the most fruitful sources of the slang are the subcultures of professional criminals who have migrated to the New World since the 16th century. Old-time thieves still humorously refer to themselves as FFV—First Families of Virginia. In criminal subcultures, pressure applied by the dominant culture intensifies the internal forces already at work and the argot forming there emphasizes the values, attitudes and techniques of the subculture. Criminal groups seem to evolve about this specialized argot and both the subculture and its slang expressions proliferate in response to internal and external pressures.

Source
Most subcultures tend to draw words and phrases from the contiguous language (rather than creating many new words) and to give these established terms new and special meanings; some borrowings from foreign languages, including the American Indian tongues, are traditional. The more learned occupations or professions like medicine, law, sociology, engineering, electronics tend to create true neologisms, often based on Greek or Latin roots, but these are not major sources for slang, though nurses and medical students adapt some medical terminology to their slang, and air force personnel and some other branches of the armed services borrow freely form engineering and electronics.

Based on the features of slang in speech, I can conclude that slang takes important place in the vocabulary of language and etymology of slang belongs to the ancient times. There are many reasons for using slang. It makes speech colorful and impressive. While using slang among some groups, it hides the meaning of the speech for other people.

Chapter III. SYNCHRONIC APPROACH TO THE SLANG
Classification of the slang
The process by which words become slang are the same as those by which other words in the language change their form or meaning or both. Some of these are the employment of metaphor, simile, folk etymology, distortion of the sounds in the words, generalization, clipping, the use of acronyms, elevation and degeneration, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, borrowings from foreign languages and the play of euphemism against taboo. The English word trip is an example of a term that has undergone both specialization and generalization. It first became specialized to mean a psychedelic experience resulting from the drug LSD. Subsequently, it is generalized again to mean any experience on any drug, and beyond that to any type of “kicks” from anything. Clipping is exemplified by the use of “grass” from “laughing grass”, a term for marijuana. “Funky”, once a very low term for body odour has undergone elevation among jazz buffs to signify “the best”, “fanny”, on the other hand, once simply on a girl’s name is currently a degenerated term that refers to the buttocks (in England it has further degenerated into a taboo word for the female genitalia). There is also some actual coinage of slang terms.
 	Psychologically, most good slang harks back to the stage in human culture when animism was a worldwide religion. At that time, it was believed that all objects had to two aspects, one external and objective that could be perceived by the senses, the other imperceptible (except to gifted individuals) but identical with what we today would call the “real” object. Human survival depended upon the manipulation of all “real” aspects of life-hunting, reproduction, warfare, weapons, design of habitations, nature of clothing or decoration, etc. Through control or influence upon the animus, or imperceptible phase of reality. This influence was exerted through many aspects of sympathetic magic, one of the most potent being the use of language. Words, therefore, had great power, because they evoked the things to which they referred.
 	Civilized cultures and their languages retain many remnants of animism, largely on the unconscious level. In Western languages, the metaphor owes its power to echoes of sympathetic magic, and slang utilizes certain attributes of the metaphor to evoke images too close for comfort to “reality”. For example, to refer to a woman as a “broad” is automatically to increase her girth in an area in which she may fancy herself as being thin. Her reaction may, thus, be one of anger and resentment, if she happens to live in a society in which slim hips are considered essential to feminine beauty. Slang, then, owes much of its power to shock to the superimposition of images that are incongruous with the images (or value) of others, usually members of the dominant culture. Slang is most popular when its imagery develops incongruity bordering on social satire. Every slang word, however, has its own history and reasons for popularity. When conditions change, the term may change in meaning, be adopted into the standard language, or continue to be used as slang within certain enclaves of the population. Nothing is flatter than dead slang. In 1910, for instance, “Oh you kid” and “23-skiddoo” were quite stylish phrases in the U.S. but they have gone with the hobble skirt. Children, however, unaware of anachronisms, often revive old slang under a barrage of older movies rerun on the television. Some slang becomes respectable, when it loses its edge: “spunk”, “fizzle”, “spent”, “hit the spot”, “jazz”, “funky” and once thought to be too indecent for feminine ears, are now family words. Other slang survives for centuries, like “bones” for dice (Chaucer), “beat it” for run away (Shakespeare) “duds” for the clothes, and “blooze” for liquor (Dekker). These words must have been uttered as slang long before appearing in print, and they have remained slang ever since. Normally, slang has both a high birth and death rate in the dominant culture, and excessive use tends to dull the luster of even the most colourful and descriptive words is undoubtedly encouraged by the mass media, and a term must be increasingly effective to survive.
While many slang words introduce new concepts, some of the most effective slang provides new expression-fresh, satirical, shocking-for established concepts, often very respectable ones. Sound is sometimes used as a basis for this type of slang as , for example, in various phonetic dictionaries (e.g pig Latin terms). It is also used in rhyming slang, which employs a fortunate combination of both sound and imagery. Thus, gloves are “turtledoves” (the gloved hands suggesting a pair of billing doves), a girl is a “twist and twirl” (the movement suggesting a girl walking), and an insulting imitation of flatus, produced by blowing air between the tip of the protruded tongue and the upper lip, is the “raspberry”, cut back from “raspberry tart”. Most slang, however, depends upon incongruity of imagery, conveyed by the lively connotations of a novel term applied to an established concept. Slang is not all of equal quality, a considerable body of it reflecting a simple need to find new terms for common ones, such as the hands, feet, head and other parts of the body. Food, drink, and sex also involve extensive slang vocabulary. Strained or synthetically invented slang lacks verve, as can be seen in the desperate efforts of some sportswriters to avoid mentioning the word baseball—e.g a batter does not hit a baseball but rather “swats the horsehide”, “plaster the pill”, “hefts the old apple over the fence” and so on.
The most effective slang operates on a more sophisticated level and often tells something about the thing named the person using the term, and the social matrix against which it is used. Pungency may increase when full understanding of the term depends on a little inside information or knowledge of a term already in use, often on the slang side itself. For example, the term Vatican roulette (for the rhythm system of birth control) would have little impact if the expression Russian roulette were not already in a wide usage.
Slang invades the dominant culture as it seeps out of various subcultures. Some words fall dead or lie dominant in the dominant culture for the one periods. Other vividly  express an idea already latent in the dominant culture and these are immediately picked up and used. Before the advent of mess media such terms invaded the dominant culture slowly and were transmitted largely by word of mouth. Thus a term like snafu, it is shocking power softened with the explanation “situation normal, all fouled up” worked its way gradually from the military in World War II by word of mouth (because the media largely shunned it) into  respectable circles. Today, however, a sportscaster, news reporter or comedian may introduce a lively new word already used by an in-group into millions of homes simultaneously, giving it almost instant currency. For example, the term uptight was first used largely by criminal narcotics to indicate the onset of withdrawal distress when drugs are denied. Later, because of intense journalistic interest in the drug scene, it become widely used in the dominant culture to mean anxiety its meaning slightly.
Other terms may change their form of both form and meaning, like “one for the book” (anything unusual or unbelievable). Sportswriters in the US borrowed this term around 1920 from the occupational language of then legal bookmakers, who lined up at racetracks in the morning (“the morning line” is still figuratively used on every sports page) to take bets on the afternoon races. Newly arrived bookmakers went to the end of the line and any bettor requesting unusually long odds was motioned down the line with the phrase, “That’s one for the end book”. The general public dropped the end as meaningless but old-time gamblers still retain it. Slang spreads through many other channels, such as popular songs, which for the initiate are often rich in double entendre.
When subcultures are structurally tight, little of their language leaks out. Thus the Mafia, in more than a half century of powerful criminal activity in America, has contributed little slang. When subcultures weaken, contacts with the dominant culture multiply, diffusion occurs and their language appears widely as slang. Criminal narcotic addicts, for example had tight subculture and highly secret argot in the 1940s; now their terms are used freely by middle class teenagers, even those with no real knowledge of drug.
In some cases slang provide a needed name for an object or action (walkie-talkie, a portable two way radio; tailgaiting driving too close by another vehicle) or it may offer an emotional outlet (buzz off for go away) or a satirical or patronizing reference (smokey state highway trooper). It may provide euphemisms (john, head, can and in Britain loo all for toilet, itself originally a euphemisms) and it may allow its user to create a shock effect by using a pungent of slang expression in an unexpected context. Slang has provided myriad synonyms for:
 parts of the body (bean, head; schnozzle, nose) 
for money (moola, bread, scratch), 
for food (grub, slop, garbage)
for drunkenness (soused, plastered, stewed)
slang is used for many purposes, but generally it expresses  a certain emotional attitude; the same term may express diametrically opposed attitudes when used by different people. Many slang terms are primarily derogatory, though they may also be ambivalent when used in intimacy or affection. Some  crystallizes or bolsters the self-image or promote identification with a class or in-group. Other flatter objects, institutions, or person but may be used by different people or the opposite effect. “Jesus freak”, originally used as ridicule was adopted as title by certain street evangelists. Slang sometimes insults or shocks when used directly; some terms euphemize as sensitive concept, though obvious or excessive euphemism may break the taboo more effectively then a less decorous term. Some slang words are essential because there are no words in the standard language expressing exactly the same meaning; eg
freak-out
barn-storm
rubberneck
creep
At the other extreme, multitude of words, vague in meaning are used simply as fads. There are many other uses to which slang is put, according to the individual and his place in the society. Since most slang is used on the spoken level, by persons who probably are unaware that it is slang, the choice of terms naturally follows a multiplicity of unconscious thought patterns. When used by writers slang is much more consciously and carefully chosen to achieve specific effect. Writers, however, seldom invent slang.
It has been claimed that slang is created by ingenious individuals to freshen the language, to vitalize it, to make the language more pungent and picturesque, to increase the store of terse and striking words, or to provide a vocabulary for shades of meaning. Most of the originators and purveyors of slang, however, are probably not conscious of these noble purposes and do not seem overly concerned about what happens to their language.
With the rice of naturalistic writing demanding realism, slang began to creep into English literature even though the schools waged warfare against it, the pulpit thundered against it, and many women who aspired to gentility and refinement banished it from the home. It flourished underground, however, in such male sanctuaries as lodges, poolrooms, barbershops, saloon.
By 1925 a whole new generation of US and European naturalistic writers was in revolt against the Victorian restraints that had caused even Mark Twain to complain, and today any writer may use slang freely, especially in fiction and drama. It has become indispensible tool in the hands of master satirists, humorists and journalists. Slang is now socially acceptable, not just because it is slang but because, when used with the skill and discrimination, it adds a new and exiting dimension to language. At the same time, it is being seriously  studied by linguists and other social scientists as a revealing index to the culture that produces and uses it.
Slang expressions are created by the same processes that affect ordinary speech. Expressions may take form as metaphors, similes, and other figures of speech (dead as a doornail). Words may acquire new meanings (cool, cat). A narrow meaning may become generalized (fink, originally a strikebreaker, alter betrayer or disappointer) or vice-versa (heap, a rundown car). Words may be clipped or abbreviated (mike, microphone), and acronyms may gain currency (VIP, awol, snafu).
A foreign suffix may be added (the Yiddish and Russian –nik in beatnik) and foreign words adopted (baloney, from Bologna). A change  in meaning may make a vulgar word acceptable (jazz) or an acceptable word vulgar.
Slang is one of the vehicles through which languages change and become renew, and its vigor and color enrich daily speech. Although it has gained respectable in the 20th century, in the past it was loudly condemned as  vulgar. Nevertheless, Shakespeare brought into acceptable usage such slang terms as hubbub, to bump and the 20th century writers have used slang brilliantly to convey character and ambience. Slang appears at all times and in all languages. 
A person’s had was kapala – dish in Sanskrit
Testa – pot in Latin
Later testa became the standard Latin word for head. Among Western languages, English, French, Spanish, Italian, German, Romanian are particularly rich in slang.

3.1.	Kinds  and forms of slang
If we except Standard slang, concerning which no more need be said, all slang is either social (dependent on class) or vocational.
Before we glance at certain slang-groups all the most important, but not quite all, of the existing kinds-it will perhaps be good manners to quote what Drs.Bradley and Krapp have to say. “Slang develops most freely”, they tell us, “in groups with a strong realization of group activity and interest, and groups without this sense of unity, e.g. farmers, rarely invent slang terms. The stage, prize-fighting, base-ball, football, and other sports are productive of an extraordinarily rich crop of slang”. They rightly mention the inventiveness of schoolboys (why not schoolgirls too?) and students, the incomprehensibility – to the uninitiated – of many writers on sport, and the existence of a vulgar beside a fashionable slang. The different Kinds of slang are numerous, and I propose to treat of only the twenty-four most important: after all there are limits. All families, if they are more than a mere collocation of related individuals, if they often meet together, and especially if they prefer their own company to that of others, have their own private slang; some few an extensive vocabulary, most a score or a dozen or even fewer words and phrases. Occasionally a stranger will hear a complete sentence that obviously means something quite different. And, lest we forget, there are such phrases as F.H.O. (standing for “Family, Hold Off” as “Hands Off), which, common to many families, are a kind of domestic freemasonry. Here is an actual family vocabulary: cobs, tea (the meal); Don Johns, onions; droomers, bedroom slippers, by way of bedroomers: expud, not nice, rejected, uncomfortable (but usually of food); flimmick, to throw away; jimkins, jam; miffy, stale (of food gone moudly): Samuel Widgeons, sandwiches; woozles!, an exclamation when anything goes wrong; yaarup!, when it goes still more wrong; Ye cods and cuttle fishes! from Ye gods and little fishes!

A.	Cockney slang
Of ordinary Cockney, there are two kinds. 
(1)	That variety of Modified standard speech which is “the typical Cockney
English of London as spoken by educated Middle-Class people” as Professor Wyld describes it before he goes on to say that “the peculiarities of this kind of London English, which distinguish it from received Standard, are dountless as much Regional in origin as are these of Liverpool of Manchester”, - only of course we should here speak not of  “ a prominent accent” but of  “a Cockney accent”.
        (2) That variety of Modified Standard which is also heard in London but which is spoken by the semi-literate and the quite illiterate: “The London Cockney of the streets”, a phrase that is by no means so ridiculous as it sounds, for this kind of Cockney, like its more exalted brother in linguistics, is no such paltry matter, as once it was, as the English spoken by Londoners born within- and having long lived within the sound of the bells of St.Mary-le-Boev church, nor even as that of Londoners generally, for its influence is very powerful within a fifty-mile radius.
Can’t you feel the shrimps? Don’t you smell the sea?
Dinah. One’s best girl. A corruption of dona(h) also sweetheart and Cochney, from Spanish dona, allied to Italian donna, both from Latin domina, the mistress of the house.
Eye in a sling. Crushed; defeated.
Old gal. “General term of affection describing a wife”.
Sky a Copper. To make a disturbance. Over a hundred years old, this phrase.
You’ll get yourself Disliked. A remonstrance to a person behaving very badly.
Knock in. To make money, into the pocket being admitted; analogous is the
general slang expression, put it down south.
B.	Public-House Slang
The proportion of Cockney in public-House. Slang is inevitably very large. As a department of slang, the public-house group of words and phrases makes up for the smallness of the recorded vocabulary by the nature of the subject, about which lingers no musty “morning-afterness” erthes of pedantry or of artificiality or of affectation. It is, in the main, genial, cheery, materialistic, but not gross not cynical. Of the idiosyncrasies of individual topers and “pub-crawlers”, as of occasional drinkers and “single-potters”, we obviously can take no account here, the utmost possible being to set forth a few of the generally known terms current at some particular period; and since the pubs palmist days were probably the period ending with the War, let us glance at the fare set before us in Passing English, published near the end of that prosperous generation.
Boozer.     A public – house.
Booze-Shunter.   A beer-drinker. The South-western Railway portess and guards, who frequented the pubs around Waterloo station, originated the term, which soon became general among the cheery-beery of society.
Pot o’ Bliss.  “A fine tall woman”. Obsolete.
Shed a tear.  To make water.
C.	Workmen’s slang
Linking up with public-house is workman’s slang. Obviously, too, workmen’s or operatives slang is very closely allied to tradesmen’s slang; yet, all in all, it is better to consider them apart, notwithstanding the fact that in the following Hotten there occurs a few terms that are or were used equally by tradesman.
Brass. Money. This very general term seems to have originated in the copper and iron industries.
Hammered. Married. Welded, together, one presumes.
Price of a Pint.  Any sum less than sixpence.
Rat. A man who, not having completed his apprenticeship has no indentures. He may enter no workmen’s society, no union.
Screwed Up. Without money, therefore unable to more about at will.
Want an Apron. To be out of work.

D. Tradesmen’s slang
In workmen’s slang as in tradesmen’s some of the words that are now jargon were, in their origin, slang: the tailor’s goose is an example, for while it has not been slang for many years, it was cited as such by Grose. It is sometimes so difficult to decide this nice distinction that one can but trust to a kind of fact.
Of the slang terms employed by the various trades, some are the common property of all – or nearly all. The following, which exemplify the general vocabulary, were recorded in 1909 by Reading Ware.
Take a trip. On giving up one job, to go looking for another.
Boot. Money.
Curly. Troublesome; esp.  to get curly.
Kick. To seek for work.
Tab. The ear.
E. The slang of commerce.
From Tradesmen we pass naturally to the commercial world.
Bang. To bang the market  is “to sell a stock with apparent recklessness, so as to force down its price”, a procedure due either to the Babger’s knowledge of bad news or to their desire to scare genuine holders of stock into selling their share at that loss which is the banger’s profit.
Half-a-One. L. 500.
Make a Price. (Of a dealer) to state the price at which he will buy or sell.
One. One thousand pounds nominal.
Com. A comercial traveler.
Squint. A “man who hangs about the market with a paltry order, and who will not deal fairly”.
F. Publicity
Much of the success of modern commerce depends on publicity. On this theme, as on all that he touches, Collinson is singularly informative and suggestive. He alludes to the fact that certain firms have so impressed on the public “catchy phrases and rhymes” that we often use them in conversation with an easy allusiveness that baffles the foreigner. For instance: Don’t worry, use Sunlight (soap); Good morning, have you  used Pear’s soap?; Since when I have used no other, with, as the famous picture had it, was originally prefaced with Twenty years ago I used your soap; - “often derisively used of anecdotal paintings”; Glako baby. “a plump and healthy child”. Sunny I’m (from the advertisement of Force); Worth a fuinee a box (Beckham’s Pills); Like Sohnny Walker, to which is often added the rest of the tag: still going strong, which is in its turn used sometimes by itself: Grateful and comforting (Epps’s cocoa); That schoolgirl complexion (Palmolive soap); That kruschen feeling (Kruschen salts); ‘E knows (Eno’s Salts), Guinness is good for you. Such phrases have  so permeated our language that some of them may be found in books by wholly reputable authors; and certain trade terms have passed through the stages of slang and colloquialism to become almost Standard-English common nouns, as with ford, genetic for a cheep car, and Rolls Royce, generic for a luxurious car. “The significant point”, as the professor adds, “is that most of these [trade-degenerations] may be used with the indefinite article or in the plural number no explanatory generic term”.
G. Journalism
From publicity to journalism is a very short step.
Journalistic slang is not always easy to detect or to determine, chiefly because it “comes from above” and except among other journalistic and perhaps among publishers – is therefore not suspect. But leader and article, now so respectable, were doubtless slang when they were first used; by 1859 they were no longer slang. Of the following words and phrases, recorded in 1909, one-half are still employed, though several of the survivors are admittedly moribund.
Cheek out Ink. To write an article Fiery Cross warning of danger.
Lethal. Deadly, mortal.
Renny Gush. Exaggerated writing.
Sarcaster . A satirist
H. Literary 
This last is, or rather, it was, - for it is obsolete in this sense, -less an ordinary journalists’ than a literary critics’ term. The literary critics are responsible for the bulk of literary slang, which, from the respectable nature of that avocation, comes also “from above” and is condemned only by those regard for English is genuine, not merely lip serviced.
Bohemian. Free-living, unconventional.
Forest of Fools. The world. A revival from Dekker’s Gull’s Horn-book, 1609.
Much, Gush and Lush. Meanly interested criticism: reviews paid for in either money or meals. Mush, soft soap; gush in the criticism; lush strong drink. A practice more general on the Continent than in England.
Not enough Written. Insufficiently polished in style; with the mistakes uncorrected.
Pocket Artist. A small actor or actress. Usually meant kindly.
I. Publishers and printers.
Nor are publishers free from blame. Publishers (in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries stationess in the sixteenth and seventeenth undertakers, in the seventeenth and eighteenth booksellers, in the nineteenth publishers) have a slang and a jargon that are familiar to booksellers, printers, and binders and are in part drawn from those three groups. Binders and booksellers, as apart from publishers, may without serious loss be omitted, but printers have a fairly extensive slang, which is best considered separately from, and after, that of publishers.
Grub Street News. False news.
Chapel. A secret meeting.
Cod. A fool. Derived from an earlier century and occasionally heard in other than printing circles.
Swang. Small talk; lying. Whence the War and post-War swank, “side”, “swagger”, excessive style.
J. The law.
Like printers, lawyers have at command a host of technical terms wherewith to bewilders laymen, but with their jargon we need not trouble.
If there are some notable slang terms in law, there are also some amusing slang names for a lawyer: the latter may well come before the others. And since the general change in taste is reflected in synonymies at different periods, 
Marksman. One who unable to write, “signihis name by making a mark.
Process-Pusher. A lawyer’s clerk so too writ-pusher.
Rule was Granted. Another chance accorded.
Elbows, Out at. (Of an estate) mortgaged.
Trounce. “To punish by course of law”. It figures in B.E. as “Trounced troubled, Cast in law, Punish”.
K. Medicine
After the law comes medicine, for “the law is no physic”.
Medical slang is, from the very nature of the case, more interesting to laymen than is law slang, but we will confine ourselves to examples current in the present century. Ware gives four terms used in 1909; boneclother, port wine, for which stout is now usually substituted as a “flattener”; locum still very commonly employed of doctors and clergymen, -Ware also quotes loke which is now less often heard, pith the social chord when severed; to be slated to die, or more precisely to be doomed to die. That Ware should list so few medical slang is not surprising, both because doctors very rarely talk “shop” to others than doctors and because, in the words of the one notable authority on medical slang, “in medicine there are relatively few true slang expressions, although many words and phrases are used … incomprehensible to the layman. There is a great tendency to use initials, … while abbreviations are also common … There is also a large list of circumlocutions, much more often heard on the tongues of patients than on those of medical men”.
Bugs. According to the context, bacteria or bacteriology.
Gubbins. Refuse, such as soiled dressings.
Outs. Out-patient department.
Spurter. A blood-vessel, usually a small artery severed in the course of a surgical operation with the result that the blood spurts out.
Teeth. The dental department of a hospital.
L. The Church.
Candle Shop.  A Broad Church term for either a Roman Catholic chapel or, tit-for-tat, a ritualistic church; “from the plenitude of lights”, says Ware with a nice appreciation of the clergy’s love of rotund words.
Dolly Worship. A Nonconformist phrase to describe the Roman catholic religion from the use of statues, effigies, shrines and calvarias.
Extreme Rockite. One who takes the Rock, a clerical newspaper as gospel and proceeds to preach on this basis. This rock seems to have been based on sand, for it has disappeared.
Massites. A low Church invention for those members of the Anglican Church who believe in transubstiantion.
The Three B’s. Bright, brief and brotherly. A protest against the soporific nature of so many church services.
Workus. A Church of England pleasantry at the expense of the Methodist chapels, usually very plain, often white-washed. In short, one is forced to notice that the slang of the cloth is neither very witty nor very tolerant; it compares ill with legal slang in wit or with Cockney slang in tolerance.
M. Parliament and politics.
In Queen Victoria’s day politics was not a profession, today it far too often is not a profession, which surely! It should be, but a trade. So that its general vocabulary, its jargon, and its slang are no longer so cultured, so considered, so literary, as once they were: instead of quoting the classics the quote the classes. In 1859 Hotten could say that Parliamentary slang was “mainly composed of fashionable, literary and learned slang. … Out of ‘the house’, several slang terms are used in connection with Parliament or members of Parliament”. He mentions Pam being Palmerston, Dizzy Disraely. “A ‘plumper’ is a single. Vote at an election – not a ‘split-ticket’… A quiet ‘walk over’ is a re-election without opposition and much cost. A “caucus” meeting refers to the private assembling of politicians before an election, when candidates are chooser, and measures of action agreed upon. A ’job’, in political phraseology, is a government office or contract obtained by secret influence or favoritism…. A pseudo-politician whose strings of action are  pulled by somebody else is often termed a ‘quockerwodger’. After a digression on broad-bottom, the eighteenth century slang for nineteenth century coalition and post-War National government, he mentions rat, “long … employed towards those turncoat politicians who change their party for interest”.
For the political period from Hotten’s death in 1873 to the present day, we have two first-rate authorities> Ware to 1909, Collinson from 1906 onwards. The overlapping is slight. From the former we will take only a selection, for he lists some ninety terms.
Apostles of Murder. Such political agitators as, from 1867, have included murder as a means to their ends. As a Cockney once remarked, “all very nice-for the ends”. 
Disquised Public House.  A workmen’s political club. This rather “superior” designation was perpetrated in the House of Commons in1886.
Earmark. To allocate in advance to a certain (generally financial) purpose.
Rooster. A M.P. far from silent. 1860-1890
Water Down. To minimize (esp. results).
Go Red. To become Bolshevistic Post-War.
N. Public Schools and Universities.
From the troublous sea of politics we turn to the sunnier life of public schools and universities.
In public schools, as in board schools and in private, there have, for more than two centuries, been two kinds of slang: a slang proper and gibberish, the latter consisting in the addition of a hocus-pocus syllable either to the beginning or the end of every word or else at the end of every syllable in a dissyllabic, trisyllabic or polysyllabic word. This latter which is  very “young”, need not be considered further at this point, for properly it belongs to the chapter on Oddities.
Bung. Alie. Perhaps ex Bungle.
Dame. An Eton term for “a master who confines his attention to mathematics”.
What’s the mat? What is the matter. Hardly survoved the so’s.
Ganymede. An undergraduate, esp. if a freshmen, “of an effeminate tendency” as Ware so charmingly phrases it.
Tea-Pot. A tea party. Dates from about 1880, when “the more earnest life at the universities then commercing took as one shape that of temperature”.
Wine. A wine party.
Leccer. A lecture.
Red tie. A vulgar person.

O. Society
The transition from University to society is as linguistically apt as it is actually natural, for although a university education constitutes neither a passport to good society nor a guarantee of genuine culture it goes some distance in both directions.
Cold Tub. A cold morning bath.
Cyrano. A huge nose.
Friveller. A “person with no serious aim in life”.
She. Queen Victoria. From Rider Haggard’s romance, She published in 1887.
Turn down One’s Cup. To die. The term became obsolescent about 1890, when turn down one’s glass took its place.
Vogue. Fashion.
White Magic. Applied figuratively to a fair woman of surpassing loveliness.
Young person. Agirl from fifteen to a marriage in her twenties.
P. Art.
Society has always, along with the few discerning dealers and a few rich recluses been the chief patron of art. The jargon of art is quickly adopted by Society, which, however, knows only a few word of artistic slang. Of artistic jargon, Hotten makes fun, yet, having noted such terms as esthetic, transcendental, the harmonies, keeping harmony, middle distance, aerial perspective, delicate handling, nervous chiaroscuro, “and the like”, he confesses that it is easy to find fault with this system of doing work”, - or cricizing art, -“whilst it is not easy to discover another at once so easily understood by educated readers, and so satisfactory to artists themselves …. Properly used, taste technicalities are allowable”.
Frame. A picture.
Got Swing, He’s. He has vigor.
Process Server.  A photogravure printer. 1886 onwards.
Put the value on. To sign (a picture). Satirical, it implies that the picture has no, or little merit, and will sell only by reason of the name attached.
Rags.”Old lace used for decorative purposes”. 1880 on.
Sculpt. To work in sculpture. An Americanism that soon retired to make way for the English to sculp.
Timbers. “Cabinets, bookcases, escritoires. Elaborate tables-worked wood in general”.
Q. The theatre.
The Theatre is a hotbed of temporary slang … and it also has a terminology of its own / J. Brander Matthews.
Acting Lady. An incapable actress. From the poor acting of the great majority of society women and girls that go on the stage.
Actor’s Bible. The theatrical newspaper, the Era.
B.P. The British Public
Carpenter Scene. On in front of the curtain while an elaborate scene is being mounted behind it.
Chair –Warmer. A good-looking actress doing little on the stage except to be there.
Cop the Curtain. To be so much applauded that the curtain is raised to enable one to bow one’s acknowledgment.
Diffs. Difficulties , chiefly monetary. 
E.P. Experienced playgoer.
Give it a drink! Condemnation passed on a bad play or on a poor music-hall turn.
Resting. Out of work. Now a colloquialism, this became general in the “90”s

R. Sports and games.
Many sporting terms have been incorporated in standard speech is well known and need not detain us, but we’ll notice a few in the course of examining Ware’s book.
In 1909, Ware includes a fair number of sporting terms in passing English. These range from the general slang vocabulary of sports and games to the special slang words of, e.g., billiards or athletics. All in all, the general slang terms are those which have the least point and therefore the greatest applicability.
Balsam. Money. Adopted from dispensing chemists.
Chant. To swear. Rarely heard after the “80”s
Drop. To lose, esp. money.
Pick of the Basket, the. The best. Now The pick of the bunch.
Chuck up the bunch of fives. To die.
Have a turn. To fight, about not “a pitched battle”.

S. The turf.
For the vocabulary of horse-racing before 1885 or so, the best books to consult are Bee’s and Hotten’s dictionaries and the best to read the novels of Robert Sartees, the creator of Jorrocks, John Hill’s  The Life of a Racehorse, 1854, and his Stable, 1863, Arthur Sketchley’s humorous Mrs. Brown on the Turt, 1877, and A.E. Watson’s Racecourse and Covert Side, 1883. For the quarter century beginning about 1885, the men to consult are Arthur Binstead, especially in A Pint Un and a Pelican, 1898, and Pitcher in Paradise, 1903, and though he starts late and goes past 1910, Nat Could in his various novels, and finally Ware, who, giving some earlier terms as well, is entertainingly useful: most of his entries are still valid and a few have become general slang, as the following complete list will show.
Bookie. Book makes.
Feel the Collar. To sweat in walking. First of horses, then of men
Go Close. (of a horse) to come in second or third at the winning post.
Lifter. A horse much given to kicking.
Post the Blue. To win the Derby, “the blue ribbon of racing”.
Rattle, With a. With an unexpected (burst of ) speed.
Riding. Adroitness, ability. At first a racing, it soon became a general sporting term.

T. Circus life.
Show – the circus.
To miss one’s tip. To fail, in riding, to clear the outstretched ribbons.
Cully. A circus comrade.
Hindoo punishment. “A rather painful exercise upon the bar, in which the arms are turned backward to embrace the bar, and brought forward upon the chest, in which position the performer revalues”.
Toe rags. Contempt.

U. Sailors.
The slang and the jargon of the sailor have exercised a considerable influence on general colloquial speech, whence they have sometimes passed into standard English.
We all know the repetition of parrots taught by sailors; and if soldiers  language is often bad, sailors language is said to be worse. All Things considered, the sailors’ slang and profanity, while no les slangy, are more profane than those of the Army.
Agub-spoiler. A cook.
Tommy-bag. The bag or the handkerchief, in which the days lunch and snacks were carried.
Admiralty ham. Tinned meat.
A mystery ship. A boat.

V. Soldiers.
Soldiers have always had a language somewhat apart. Unfortunately we possess no records of the slang used in such wars as those of Marlborough and Wellington and not much of that current in the Crimean War and the Indian Muting.
Nevertheless, Captain Francis Grose lists seventy odd terms that in the Cast quarters of the  eighteenth century were either soldier’s slang jargon or general slang referring to soldiers.
Parish Soldier. A militiaman.
Skink. “To wait on the company, ring the bell, stir the fire and snuff the candles; the duty of the youngest offices in a military mess”; he was called. Grose informs us, Boots.
Soldier’s Pamatum. “A piece of tallow candle”.
Used up. Killed.
Out of Mess. Dead.
Whitehall. Cheerfulness. Chiefly in” He’s been to Whitehall”, i.e., he’s got further leave, hence he’s very cheerful.
Arsty. Slowly! Go easy!
Maalish. Never mind.
Push. An attack.
W. Yiddish.
Here, need it be said?, is considered not Yiddish itself but such Yiddish as has penetrated into general English slang.
It is however, very difficult for the person without a knowledge of Yiddish, of whatever kind, to obtain a knowledge of Yiddish words, for these is no Yiddish-English dictionary suitable to the “layman”. A glace at the few easily accessible authorities will show this difficulty.
In 1890, professor William Sproull published in Hebraice an American periodical,, a short list of “Hebreu and Rabbinical words in present Use”, but he failed to note their slang Yiddish affiliations, except for Kosher, meat or rather “the meat of animals killed and dressed according to the law. Kosher designates also a pious person”; the post-war sense of Kosher is any  typically Jewish food. Much more important and readable is “The Hebrew Element in English” in the April and May 1920  numbers of English, the writer being Israel Ben Argah. This , however, as is only natural, restricts itself to standard English words.
It’s found, then, That the best source for Yiddish as used in English slang is, as so often, Ware’s passing English, since the publication of which in 1909 only one Yiddish word has added itself to English slang, nor is that one at all widely known: to briss, to circumcise. Ware has the following terms:-
Cady. A hat.
Calloh. A bride; also, a young girl.
Gonoph. A thief.
Kosal Kafa. One (shilling) and six (pence).
Kosher. Pure, undefiled.
Sheol. Hell.

X. Cant.
Cant, in fact, is largely a “secret” language; that is, it has a number of terms for its own private use, but in its everyday vocabulary it is a mixture of slang and low colloquialisms. Cant in its essence, is not slang at all, but it has a contribution to slang.
In 1789 George Parker included in his Life’s painter of variegated Characters the poem. That was written by one who knew the underworld intimately, and a century later at least three writers who know its language well, though their poems may be described as literary in nature but of a vocabulary consisting of cant interspersed among slang and colloquialism: Henly, Sims, and Baumann, whose” Rum Coves. That Relieve Us”, serving as a preface to Londonismen, 1887, was, for a foreigner, a triumph of virtuosity. In this poem he describes these Rum coves that relieve us of chinkers and poeces, and notes that generally they are either legged or shrugged.
Y. Miscellaneous.
This section does not aim to do for slang what a “sweeper” does on a railway: aims simply to bring under one heading a few word-groups that do not deserve a separate treatment.
The baby-talk of childhood is obviously not slang when it is that of the children themselves: when that of parents, nurses, and well-meaning friends and strangers, it is jargon. But when, as often, this baby-talk is deliberately used between two adults, especially if jocularly, then it certainly is slang, as pinny (pinafore), moo-cow, low-wow, jumbo, puff-puff and piggy-wiggy will serve to show; diddums is by no means the privilege of children. Most adults, however, feel that such slang-except between lovers, whom nothing seems ridiculous – is a little childish and exasperating. And much the same, though mildness is here called for, can be said of the slangy adaptations of words and phrases from nursery rhymes and from children’s games.
Forms of slang
Slang expressions arise in the same ways that other words come into being. There are seven chief forms of slang, each created by a different process. These forms are 
(1) old words used in new ways, 
(2) shortened or lengthened words, 
(3) figures of speech, 
(4) rhyming slang, 
(5) acronyms, 
(6) coinages, and 
(7) blends.
1. Old words used in new ways. Most slang expressions are simply new uses for old words or phrases. The flap (excitement or commotion) about air pollution is slang, but the flap (hinged section) of an airplane wing is not. To rip off (steal) a camera is slang, but to rip off  the top of a box is standard English.
2. Shortened or lengthened words. The process of creating a new word by dropping one or more syllables from a longer word is called clipping. Clipping produces many slang terms, including phiz (face), which is short for; psycho, short for psychopath and rep, short for reputation.
Another type of shortened word is a back-formation. Most slang back-formations are verbs that were formed by dropping the ending from a noun. Examples of such verbs include burgle (to steal), from burglar; letch (to lust), from lecher: and nuke (to attack with nuclear weapons), from nuclear.
3. Figures of speech expressions in which words are used in unusual ways. One of the most common slang figures of speech is the metaphor, an implied comparism between two different thing, f.e., the slang metaphor bean pole describes a thin person.
Another type of slang figure of speech is metonymy, which substitutes a quality of something for the thing itself. Examples of metonymy include long green (paper currency) and skirt (woman).
4. Rhyming slang is slang that replaces a word with a word or phrase that rhymes with it. Many cockneys in English and many Australians use such slang. F.e. a cockney might say Rosie Lee for tea. Some American slang is also formed by rhyming. Examples include crumt-bum and thriller-diller (exciting story or motion picture).
5. Acronyms are words formed from the first letters or syllables of the words in a phrase. This form of slang includes D.J. or dujay, from dise Jockey: and kidvid 9children’s TV programme), from kid video.
6. Coinages are newly invented words or phrases. Slang coinages include humongous (huge), moola (money), palooka (inferior athlete), and zit (pimple).
7. Blends  are new words created by joining the first part of one word to the second part of another. Examples of slang blends are greened (United States marine), from G. I. marine;
3.2.	The role of the slang in the literary text
Slang is closer to Argot or anti-language, in that standard Lexical Items are replaced Relaxicalization  which are characteristically very informal, and designed, like a “secret language” to be unintelligible to the uninitiated. So Winchester schoolboys may sport a thoke (oversleep), and tramps (steal).
Although there is something of this “in-group” or solidarity tendency in professional jargon, yet the letter is characteristically formal, and found in writing as well as speech, often passing into general circulation. Nevertheless, there is a sense in which slang in this usage appears to be the working class equivalent of jargon: terms used by CB truckers for their job rather than by lawyers. Linguistically, however , the usages of such groups reveals the creativity generally associated with slang in below: eg 
Motion loton (fuel)
Smokey beaver (policewoman)
In more general sense slang has wide circulation: at least it is associated with larger social groups.
Such as adolescents, or dialect speakers (eg. Cockney, rhyming, slang). Again it is characteristically associated with very informal Registers, and speech predominantly; non-standard kind, sometimes ycooccuring with the swearing. If the pictures is the informal equivalent of the cinema, the flicks is stylistically even more informal than the pictures. Thus slang is less socially acceptable than jargon and more socially subversive, to be defined almost as a Deviation from standard usage.
Slang words can come and go very quickly: either passing out of the language completely, or being promoted to standard usage. No one says  hard cheese or stiffing any more, which sound very Wodehousian. Some words considered slang in the 18th century are now not:
Eg: piano, bully, doggerel
Some words, however, remain this side of respectability for a long time: booze (verb) since the 14th century, for example.

Distinguished scholars and researcher of slang
E Patridge and his successors I B Greenough and C L Kitteridge define a slang as unstable non registered and sometimes quite accident co joinment of lexeme reflecting conscience and thinking of people belonging to a particular social and professional media. Slang is viewed as intentional usage of general literary elements in oral speech with purely stylistic aim: to create patterns so that to make the utterance more concrete, lively expressive laconic.
Slang reveals a remarkable Expressiveness and creativity in its forms: making considerable use of Neologism ; Clipping; Soum; Symbolism; metaphor.
It is prime motivation is obviously a desire for novelty of expression; and as Turner notes, it lacks the finer cognitive distinctions that usually motivates technically jargon. As has often been noted, certain semantic fields seem to attract a wealth of slang term idioms.
Money – brass, dough, mint, lolly
Head- noodle, chump, block. Loaf
Drunk-slewed, sloshed, plastered, half-cut
Nonsense-ballyhoo, piffle, cobbler, guff
Above mentioned words are obviously humorous, and such humor is often exploited in a kind of Euphemism, which soften Taboo subjects.
Death – pushing up the daisies, kick the bucket; a stuff 
Let us analyze the role of the slang in the book “The catcher in the rye” by J B Salinger.
The main hero of this text Holden Gauilfield a teenager. This novel is remarkable for the fact that the hero speaks in the language of youth and not well-spoken English adult.
Holden is very straightforward in characterizing people and thus expressing his attitude toward them.
She did not look like any dope.
Dope- idiot, silly.
It is about his classmate Ernest Morrow’s mother. The another word which he uses to characterize people is “snotty”.
She can be very snotty.
Snotty- huaghly, arrogant, scornful.
The more expensive a school is the more crooks it has.
I am not kidding.
By the metaphor “crook” he characterizes the students of the elite school.
“I am not kidding” it is his favorite expression.
Holden uses this expression when he want that he speaks seriously. The translation of this expression depends on situation of the text.
No kidding- axmoq qilmay
I am not kidding- men jiddiy gapiryapman
No kiddng now- tugri gapir
No kidding- ishonmaysanmi
Several expressions are used for the meaning to chatter, to talk, eg
To school the crap
 To school the bull
To school the breeze
To chew the rag
Eg
I kept wishing I could home and shoot the bull for a while with Phobe- men uyga borib ozgina Fob bilan gaplashishni isteman.
To characterize the places  Holden uses the word “dump”- tahslandiq, xaroba
She lived at the Stanford Arms Hotel on sixty-fifth and Broadway. A dump no doubt.
To describe feeling or emotions he uses the expression and words like 
To hit the ceiling – to become angry.
To hate the guts- to be annoyed
Yellow- gloomy
May be that is why I am partly yellow.
It is funny kind of yellowness, when you come to think of it, but it is yellowness all right.
Holden likes to use a complete wide area of epithets.
Phony – false
Phony smile.
Lousy – disgusting
He was lousy at writing compositions.
Terrific- intensifier of positive evaluation.
While analyzing the materials I can prove that the slang expressions adds considerable expressiveness and creativity in depicting outer world. It is desirable means to characterize people and the objects. Thus slang in itself and within the stylistic devices play important role in the literary too.
Dictionary of modern British slang
These phrases are in everyday use around most of Britain!
  Phrase                                                     Meaning
99                                                               a popular style of ice  cream,
                                                                   usually ordered   with a “flake”                                                               
“A”  level                                                   exams taken at age 18 
Abso-bloody-lutely                                  a more definite form of “absolutely”
Afters                                                         dessert
Agro                                                           trouble; violence
All broke up                                              on holiday, usually from school
All of a twitter                                         very nervous or apprehensive
Aluminium                                                aluminum
Arse                                                            bottom, or ass
Arse bandit                                               a homosexual
Arse over tit                                              to fall head over heels
Arse about                                                playing around, being silly
                                                                    e.g. “stop arsing about”
Artic                                                            an articulated lorry; a bick truck
Aussie                                                         an Australian
Backhander                                               a bribe
Bag                                                              an unattractive or elderly woman
Balderdash                                                 rubbish; nonsense
Balls up                                                       a mess; a confusion
Banger                                                        (1) an old car; (2) a sausage
Barking mad                                                   crazy
Batty                                                                 dotty; crazy
Beak                                                                  magistrate
Beehive                                                             a tall hairstyle 
Bees knees                                                        something really good
Beetle crusher                                                  a boot; a foot
Behind                                                                bottom; buttock
Berk                                                                    a stupid person
                                                                            e.g.”you silly berk”
Bevvy                                                                   a drink
Bit of fluff                                                            a pretty young single woman
Bill,the                                                                  police, sometimes called”the old bill”
Binge                                                                    a drinking bout 
Bin liner                                                               garbage bag
Bin men                                                               garbage collectors
Bint                                                                       a rough girl
Biro                                                                       a ballpoint pen
Bit of alright                                                        something highly satisfactory
Black maria                                                          a police van                     
Black pudding                                                      a sausage like food made from –pigs 
                                                                               blood, oats, fat
Black sheep of the family                                   a relative who gets into trouble with   
                                                                                the    police
Blag                                                                         a robbery; to rob
Blagger                                                                 a robber
Blighty                                                                   England
Blimey!                                                                  An expression of surprise
Blob                                                                        a contraceptive
Blotto                                                                     drunk
Blower                                                                    telephone
Blow your own trumpet                                      to brag; to boast
Blubber                                                                   to cry
Bobby dazzler                                                        a remarkable person or thing
Bog                                                                          a toilet, a washroom
Bollock naked                                                         stark naked
Bollocks                                                                   esticles
Bonce                                                                       head
Bonk                                                                         to copulate
Bonnet                                                                     hood of a car
Bookie                                                                      betting shop owner
Boot                                                                          trunk of a car
Boracic                                                                      penniless
Bosch                                                                         a derogative term for  
                                                                                                      germans
Bovver                                                                        trouble
Bovver boot                                                              a heavy boot, possibly with  
                                                                                         a toe cap and laces   quite                 
                                                                                       often worn by skinheads
Bovver boy                                                    a hooligan; a troublemaker
Brass monkey weather                               cold, taken from the phrase, “it’s cold 
                                                                        enough to freeze the balls off a brass 
                                                                                    monkey”
Breakdown van                                               a tow truck
Brickie                                                               a bricklayer
Brill!                                                                   short form of brilliant, meaning
                                                                                      fantastic
Brolly                                                                   an umbrella
Browned off                                                       bored; fed up
Brummy                                                              a native of Birmingham
Bubble and squeak                                            fried cabbage and potatoes
Bubbly                                                                 champagne
Bugger all                                                           nothing; very little
Bumf                                                                    toilet paper this led to “bumf” being 
                                                                              used for superfluous papers, letters
Bumming a fag                                                 requesting a cigarette
                                                                            e.g. “Can I bum a fag from you mate?”
                                                                           Note: this has a very different meaning
                                                                                  In the U.S.
Bunch of fives                                                       a fist
“button it!”                                                           “be quiet!”
Caff                                                                          a cafй
Cake hole                                                                a person’s mouth
  Cardy                                                                      abbreviation of cardigan
Champers                                                                champagne
Char                                                                          tea; a domestic worker
Cheeky monkey                                                      a rude person
Cheesed off                                                             bored; fed up
Chin chin                                                                  a drinking toast
Chippy                                                                      a fish and chip shop; a carpenter
Chokey                                                                      prison
Chuffed                                                                     very pleased or proud
Clapped out                                                             worn out, broken
Clappers                                                                   to go very fast; to work hard
                                                                                  e.g. That car goes like the clappers!   
                                                                                 e.g. I have to work like the clappers        
                                                                                  to finish it by lunchtime!

Dictionary of youth slang during 1960-70s
Acid (n) LSD, a narcotic drug popular among hippies. See psychedelic, bad trip.
Afro (n) haircut popular among African-Americans during 1960’s and 70’s
Aquarian (adj) we’re not sure exactly what this means, but it has something to do with the “Age of Aquarius” and the musical Hair.
Bad scene  (n) a bad situation. See scene
Bad trip (n) originally described a bad experience using drugs, characterized by frightening hallucinations. Can be used to describe any bad experience.
Bag (n) one’s main interest  or purpose in life.
Black light (n) a decorative light, dark blue in color to the human eye, which makes objects or artwork in fluorescent colors appear to glow.    
Blow your mind (v) to have an enlightening or illuminating experience.
Bread (n) money.
Bummer (n) bad experience.
Bust (v) to arrest someone, (n) an arrest.
Cat (n) a person. Derived from beatnik language of the 1950’s.
Chick (n) a girl or woman.
Commune (n) an community of people who share possessions, living accommodations and work (or lack thereof). Usually encompasses a farm and other fashionable industries.
Crash (v) to sleep, rest, or do nothing.
Crash pad (n) a place where one sleeps, rests, or does something.
Dig (v) like, enjoy, be interested in.
Drag (n) an unfavorable situation or state of affairs.
Dude (n) person, usually male.
Establishment, the (n) traditional business and government institutions, believed to stand in the way of human progress. See “system, the”.
Far out (adj) very interesting, good. Also an exclamation.
Free love (n) love without expectations or commitment.
Fuzz (n) police.
Get it on (n) successfully interact with others.
Groove (v) enjoy, achieve proficiency at. See “groovy”.
Groovy (adj) good, interesting, enjoyable.
Hang out (v) to be some place, usually doing nothing, with no purpose.
Hang up (n) inhibition, usually due to morals, beliefs or culture.
Happening (adj) exciting, new, good.
Heavy (adj) thought- provoking.
Hippie (n) [ still searching for a definition here]. Hip (adj) knowledgeable of, or consistent with, the latest trends and ideas.
Iron Butterfly (n) a rock band which had one popular song, “Inna Gadda Da Vida”.
Lava lamp (n) a cylindrical glass container filled a semi-solid viscous material which breaks apart and forms globules while floating in a clear fluid.
Like (?) word used to fill up space in an utterance when the speaker is unable to think of a suitable adjective to describe something. Use of this word has also been adopted by adjective- challenged subcultures of more recent generations.
Love beads (n) colorful beads worn around the neck to symbolize love.
Man (interjection) used as an exclamation to draw attention to one’s utterance, related phrase: “hey, man”.
Mood ring (n) a ring worn on the finger which contains a large stone, the color of which is supposed to indicate the wearer’s emotional mood. Mood ring were a fad in the mid-1970’s.
Oh wow (interjection) exclamation uttered in response to new, thought-provoking, or exciting information.
Out of sight (adj)excellent, outstanding. Often used as an exclamation.
Pad (n) living accommodation-house or apartment.
Pease (n)absence of war.
Psychedelic (adj) of or related to a mental state characterized by a profound sense of intensified sensory perception, sometimes accompanied by severe perceptual distortion, hallucinations, or extreme feelings of euphoria or despair. See acid.
Rap (v,n) to talk, conversation. More recently used to name a category of music where words are spoken, rather than sung.
San Francisco (n) wordwide center of hippie activity and general weirdness.
Scene (n) place, situation or circumstances.
Sock it to me (phrase) let me have it.
Spaced out (adj) dazed, not alert.
Split (v) to leave, depart. 
Square (adj) old fashioned, not aware of new thinking and customs; (n) one who is square.
System, the (n) the system of laws, governance and justice. See establishment, the.
Tie dye (v) a method of coloring clothing where the article of clothing is tied in knots, then dying it to produce an abstract  pattern. (n) an article of clothing dyed in this manner.
Trip (n) an unusual experience. (v) to have an unusual experience.
Turn on (v) to become enlightened to new ways of thinking or experiencing.

Euaned-   to get very drunk. A reference to Tony Blair’s son’s drunken antics reported in the press. E.g. “I got completely Euaned last night!” thanks to Sam Sharp.
Feeding the pony-   to arouse a woman using one’s digits! Suggested by Nicola Fleet. Also see “badger scratching”.
(to) figure of eight it-  to suggest a girl has a vagina. i.e. “blimey, you’d av to figure of eight it to get any pleasure from it!”. Suggested by Jon Krinks.
Fish licker-   lesbian. Suggested by Glenn Atkins.
Fishmonger-   slang term for “lesbian”. Anyone else use this? 
Flight Lieutenant Biggles-   Modern Rhyming Slang for “giggles”, e.g. “I had a bad case of the Flight Lieutenants”. Suggested by Jon Macfarlane who saw this in an Irvine Welsh book.
Float a sausage to the seaside-  to have a shit. A term that has been suggested by a few people. This one is one of many similar phrases.( See “see a brown friend off to the coast”, “drop the kids off at the pool”.) which may originate from the comic Viz.
Frank and Pat— Modern Rhyming Slang for “chat”, e.g. “Do you ever stop your Frank and Pat!”. After the well-known couple in Eastenders, the UK soap.
Front/four wheel skid-  Modern Rhyming Slang for “Yid”(jew). Suggested by Simon.
Furry monkey- slang term for vagina. As used by Daisy Donovan on Channel 4’s “Eleven O’Clock Show”.
Gentleman’s relish- spunk/ sperm. Another great suggestion from Jon Krinks. 
George and Zippy- Modern Rhyming Slang for “nippy”(cold). After the bizarre puppet duo from the children’s TV series “Rainbow”. Suggested by Matt Wrixon.
Gianluca Vialli-  Modern Rhyming Slang for “Charlie” (cocaine). Suggested by a few people.
Glazey doughnut- a gross term describing what you get round your mouth after a woman has finished sitting on your face. Suggested by Steve.
Gorillas in the Mist- Modern Rhyming Slang for “pissed” (drunk). Not sure if this is widespread or not. Suggested by John-T.
Greyhound- a very short skirt. From the fact that a greyhound (on a race track) is close to the hare (hair), i.e. “Blimey, look at the Greyhound on that bird!”. Suggested by Tim Golding.
Hanging bacon- womens “bits”. Bit of a rude one suggested by Tania Baird.
Hale and Pace- Modern Rhyming Slang for “face”. Named after the comedy duo, e.g. “When you’re stoking the fire you don’t worry about the Hale!”. Suggested by Nick Rogers.
Harry- big- button- one of my favorites, this comes from a friend of  mine and is used to describe cheap-looking electrical goods with big buttons and naff design. An example would be “I’ve got a new car, it’s alright but the stereo’s a bit Harry-big-button”. This one tends to catch on with others and I would be interested if anyone else had heard it. (suggested by R. Bushby.) I’ve had one email on this saying from a Brain Jones who uses the term “Harry- clunk- buttons” after those cheap Harry Moss car stereos. I think these car stereos probably the origin of Harry-big-button.
Hattie Jacques- Modern Rhyming Slang for “shakes”. i.e.  “after that booze up I ‘ad a bad case of the Hatties”. Suggested by Christine Cusick.
Have a tower!- slang for “have an eyeful”,i.e. “Eiffel”. Suggested by Al.
Huger than soap- something that is a big deal or a big event. Suggested by Kel. Anyone else use this one? 
Jackson Pollock(s)-   Modern Rhyming Slang for “bollocks”(testicles). E.g. “He needs a good kick in the Jacksons”.
Janet Street- Porter-     Modern Rhyming Slang for “quarter”(of hashish).
Jean-Michael Jarre- Modern Rhyming Slang for “bar”, e.g. “Oi, Simon, get up to the Jean Michael, will ya!?”. Suggested by Simon Scott.
Jockeys’ whips- Modern Rhyming Slang for “trips”(LSD). Suggested by Keith Giles.
Johnny-no stars- a young man of substandard intelligence, i.e. the typical adolescent who works in a burger restaurant. The “no stars” bit comes from the badges displaying stars that staff at fast-food restaurants often wear which show their level of training.
Johnny Vaughn- it’s only right that the man from “The Big Breakfast” who has popularized many slang terms should have one using his moniker. This one is Modern Rhyming Slang for “porn”(pornography). Heard and suggested by Matt Helm.
Kryptonite-  Modern Rhyming Slang for “web site”. One of the few terms I’ve heard for this. Suggested by Chris Lambeth.
Kung fu fighter  -  Modern Rhyming Slang for “lighter”. Suggested by Toby Stokes. 
Leo Sayer- an “all-dayer” (drinking or a rave etc).
Lou Reed- Modern Rhyming Slang for “speed”. (the drug). Suggested by Ken Anderson.
Melvyn Bragg- Modern Rhyming Slang for “fag”. (cigarette) e.g. “Oi mate, can I scrounge a Melvyn off you?”
Millennium Dome- Modern Rhyming Slang for “phone”. (a modern replacement for “dog and bone” perhaps), e.g. “Yeah, she gave me a tinkle on the Millenium Dome last night”. Suggested by James Kicul.
Milton Keynes- Modern Rhyming Slang for “jeans”. Suggested by Lee Murthwaite.

Conclusion
Slang usually means the special language of a group that people outside the group don’t understand Trades and professions have specialized terms that people who work in the field know. When you are writing for a general audience, however, avoid slang and use terms that everyone understands. Even when the word is a common one, a specialized meaning makes it slang.
Special                                    Word                       Specialized 
 activity                                                                      meaning
 theater                                   the boards                       the stage 
architecture                             set off                        a flat projection   
                                                                                   form a wall
medicine                                carrier                        a person who trans
                                                                                 mitts a disease beet
                                                                                 doesn’t get it.
music                                     beat                          a regular unit of rhythm
golf                                         ace                           a hole in one.
physics                                   ace                                  a quark
Slang is an informal kind of language in which words and phrases are used in new or unusual ways. Many slang terms are expressive, humors and vivid. Some are crude and offensive. A slang expression may be a new word, such as glitzy (gaudy) or hype (advertising that relies on gimmicks or tricks) or it may be an old word with a new meaning, such as wired or cool 9excited or self-controlled).
People use slang more often in speaking than in writing, and more often with friends than with strangers. Slang thus resembles colloquialisms, which are expressions used in everyday conversation but not considered appropriate for formal speech or writing. Unlike colloquialisms are used- or at least understood – by the general population. But many slang expressions are limited to a certain segment of society or to a specific occupational group. For example some slang is used only by criminals and other members of the underworld. Such slang is called argot or cant. The special slang and technical vocabulary of a profession or trade is known as jargon.
Some slang phrases have meanings than cannot be determined from the ordinary meaning of the words. Such phrases, including kick the bucket and up the creek, are called idioms.
Slang expressions change and spread so quickly that many people have difficulty determining what is slang and what is not. Dictionaries and language experts often disagree about whether a particular expression is slang, A colloquialism, or even standard language.
Slang has a wide variety of uses. Many people use it because they want to seem fashionable and modern. Others use slang because it is frank and informal, expresses friendliness, and puts people at ease.
Many slang terms are used to insult. F.e. a person considered inferior or unpleasant can be described by such words as creep, drip, fink, jerk, nerd, sap, and turkey. Some insulting a slang words refer to certain ethnic, racial and religious groups. Slang is also used to criticize or poke fun at established institutions.
Some slang expressions are used chiefly by members or certain groups. In the jargon of airline pilots, f.e. passengers are geese. Truck drivers have a large slang vocabulary, including such expressions as Smokey (state trooper) and hammer (accelerator). Different age groups also have different slang. A person whom an adult might describe as having holes in the head would be called flaky or spaced by a teen-ager.
Group slang is often used to demonstrate membership in- and loyalty to the group. This type of slang may also be used to maintain secrecy because outsiders are unfamiliar with it. In a hospital, a physician may ask a nurse to put a patient on the bird (respirator) or to have some laboratory tests performed stat (rush).
Many slang expressions help people express themselves vividly. F.e. a student who says, “Math drives me up the wall!” probably sounds more convincing than one who says, “I dislike mathematics”.
People often use slang to refer to painful of frightening situations. A soldier may say that a friend brought the farm rather than was killed in battle. Such language attempts to relieve anxiety by substituting a light-hearted or indirect expression for an unpleasant or direct one.
Much slang comes from the special vocabulary or certain groups within a general population. These groups may be based on such factors as age, ethnic background and occupation. A large amount of cant, jargon, and other group language spreads beyond the group that originated it and becomes general slang. The terms joint (cheap bar or restaurant) and scram (to get away quickly) originated as criminal argot. Theater jargon produced such expressions as ham it up (to overact) and turkey (failure). Jazz musicians invented gig (job) and bag (special interest or talent).

The list of used literature.
1.	Karimov I.A.Yuksak ma`naviyat yengilmas kuch-Toshkent: sharq,1997.- b.19
2.	Александрова С.Я. Семантический анализ сложноподчиненных предложений с придаточными, вводимыми союзами as и as though // Вопросы грамматической структуры предложения и текста в английском языке-Москва: Солношка,1987.-ст. 43
3.	 Бабалова Л.Л. Об употреблении союзов и, а, но в сложном предложении-Mосква:Русский язык за рубежом,1980.-ст.57-62. 
4.	Биренбаум Я.Г. К теории сложного предложения (На материале английского языка)-Mосква:Вопросы языкознания,1982.-ст.50-58.
5.	Биренбаум Я.Г. Сопоставление сложноподчиненных предложений русского и английского языков-Mосква:Сопоставительный лингвистический анализ, 1977.-ст.29-32.
6.	Валимова Г.В. Осочинительных союзах в сложном предложении // Материалы IX и X конференций Северо-Кавказского зонального объединения кафедр русского языка.- Ростов н/Д:Изд-во Рост.ун-та,1971.-ст.87-93.
7.	Верховская И.П. К вопросу о классификации сложноподчиненных предложений в современном английском языке // Проблемы грамматики английского языка- Mосква:Сб. науч. Тр,1981.-ст.31-43.
8.	Гвоздев А.Н. Современный русский литературный язык- Mосква:  Просвещение,1958.-ст.301.
9.	Гепнер Ю.Р. Сложное предложение и принципы его изучения-Харьков Учеб.пособие.-1963.-cт 45.
10.	 A.Carnoy. In my treatise on semantics-New york:oxford,1927.-p.129
11.	 Alice Maclin. Reference Guide to English-Washington:oxford,1996.-p 76
12.	 B. Matthew. The popular Science Monthly of February-England: oxford, 1906.-p 125
13.	 Birriyan  M.J. The Cambridge Illustrated Dictionary of British Heritage-England: Washington,1898.- p323
14.	 Chapman, Robert L.American  Slang-England:Harper Perennial,1987.-p.36
15.	 Coreenough an Kittredge-Words and their Ways in English Speech-New york: oxford,1902.- p 54
16.	 Eric Partridge. Rout ledge dictionary of historical slang-Forked river: air press,1987.-p.76  
17.	 Victorian Frankin, Robert Rodman. An Introduction to language -5th Edition, 1993.-p 46 
18.	 Eric Partridge. Slang to – day and yesterday.-London, Boston and Hely,1970.- p 90
19.	 Frank Seohrist. The Psychology of Unconventional Language-New york: Cambridge,1913.- p 433
20.	 Greenough and Kittredge. From Verdict-England: Cambridge press,1920.-p.19
21.	 Houghton.The American Heritage School Dictionary-England: McFarland,1976.-p98
22.	 Henri Bauche. Le Language Populaire-New york:harvard press,1920.-p.56
23.	 John  Brophy.Essay  in  Songs  and  Slang  of the British Soldier-England:England university press,1931-1932-p.68
24.	 L. P. Smith.Words and Idioms-Forked River: Harvard,1925.-p 23Peter  Wright. Cockney Dialect and Slang- London: published by B. T. Batsford, 1981.-p 231
25.	 M. Lazares. Le Language parision au xixe siecle-Frence: France press,1920.-p32
26.	 New York reviewer. The Atlantic Monthly-Luisiana: New Jersey publisher, 1893.- p.76
27.	 Otavian B.F. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language-New York: McFarland,1877.- p.78
28.	 Olof E. Bosson. Slang and Cant in Jerome K. Jerom’s Works-New york,Harvard university press,1911.-p.56
29.	 Richard A. Spears.Slang and Euphemism.-New york: Jonathan  David  Publishers, 1981.- p.66
30.	 William K. Bentley,James M. Corbett. Jefferson, N. Caroline. Prison Slang- Published by McFarland,1992.p.44
31. Ayto Simpson. An Etymological Dictionary of Modern English-New york: Weekley,1921.-p.43
32. Phythian B.A. A Concise Dictionary of Slang-Forked river:Hodder and Stoughton,1996.-p.78
33. Dekker.Etymological Dictionary-England: Oxford dictionary press,1613.-p.87
34. Eric Partridge A.F. Dictionary of slang and unconventional English-england: London-Broadway House,1961.-p.54
35. Holder  R.W. A dictionary of Euphemism –England,Published by Oxford University Press,1995.-p.66
36. Katie Wales. A Dictionary of Stylistics-United kingdom:Longman Group U.K. Limited,1990.-p.87
37. Eric Partridge. A smaller slang dictionary-New york,Harvard press,1987.-p.90
38. John Sicclair Collins Cobuild.English language Dictionary-London:Harper Collins Publishers,1992.-p.34
39. Thomas Y. Cromwell. Dictionary of American Slang.-New york: Published by / New York press,1967.-p.32
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41. Leslie Dunkling.Dictionary of curious phrases-Glasgow:Published by   Harper Collins Publishers,1998.-p.45
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48.   http://www.5ballov.ru
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51.  http://www.yahoo.com/search/slang