THE MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
THE UZBEK STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY 
  ENGLISH Y FACULTY II 
ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY DEPARTMENT

COURSE PAPER
Types of dictionary compiling

                                             Written by the student of the 3rd course, 319 group
Абдурасулова Хуснижахон
Scientific superviser: 
Azimbayeva Dilafruz

TASHKENT 2016

CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………..3
CHAPTER I. LEXICOLOGY AS A LINGUISTIC SCIENCE
1.1. Lexicography is a branch of lexicology……………………………………….6
1.2. The history of English Dictionaries and their development………………….10
CHAPTER II. HISTORICAL AND CONTEMPORARY VARIATION IN DICTIONARIES
2.1. Dictionaries and their types………………………………………………….14
2.2. The aim and usage of Dictionaries…………………………………………..32
CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………….…40
LIST OF USED LITERATURE…………………………………………….…43

INTRODUCTION
		As President Islam Karimov  stated  “Today the world demands that we should say our word, demonstrate our intellectual capacities,” and that is why “The most important thing for us is to give young people an opportunity to master a certain speciality, to provide them with a reliable start in life”.
Undoubtedly nowadays there are many opportunities for the youth of Uzbekistan to show their full capacity in any field. Using these opportunities wisely, I am also trying to research my bachelor diploma work in my speciality.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines a dictionary as a "book dealing with the individual words of a language (or certain specified class of them) so as to set the forth their orthography, pronunciation, signification and use their synonyms, derivation and history, or at least some of these facts for convenience of reference the words are arranged in some stated order, now in most languages, alphabetical, and in larger dictionaries the information given in illustrated by quotations from literature.
      We know that dictionaries are very important source in learning new languages and to understand their meaning completely.                                                                                                                  This course papers  aim of the dictionaries in learning English language . Course paper deals  with the following tasks :
-	To define the subject of lexicology
-	To introduce the history of lexicography
-	To present the main types of dictionaries
-	To study the main problems in dictionaries                                                                  Work is that the study of Dictionaries gives the effectiveness to the students in learning this language as a second language.                                               
-	 The novelty of this work is that the problems of lexicography, dictionaries and their types are under the discussion as a special research work. The main material of this course paper is illustrated with examples in English language which are gathered from English dictionaries and literature.                                                                                                               The practical results and conclusion can be used in translating different texts. They also can be used as examples or tasks, mini tests in seminar on, Translation Practice and Lexicology. 
   The structure of this work is as follows:
Introduction
Two chapters
Conclusion
    Bibliography Introduction deals with the description of the structure of a work.
     The first chapter consists of three paragraphs . The first deals with the study of a lexicography as a branch of lexicology. Despite many recent advances , lexicology as a separate branch of linguistics is still in its early stages. No corresponding discipline is distinguished in Western European or American linguistics. There is no mention of lexicology in their Universities' cirrcula and what they have to say about the study of vocabulary is included in lectures on grammar. The importance of various items of its subject-matter is nevertheless recognized as proved by the existence of a sizable literature or articles, dissertations and book length monographs. Modern English lexicography appeared in the 15th century. In this period English -Latin dictionaries were in existence. The first dictionary of the English language was published in 1755 by Samuel Johnson, in which he gave the origin of words and examples from the works of the best writers.
The second paragraph outlines the history of English Dictionaries and their development. In the third paragraph we presented the history of American Webster's New International Dictionary of English language.
      The second chapter also consists of three paragraphs. The first paragraph deals with the dictionaries and their types. The first unilingual English dictionary, explaining words by English equivalents, appeared in 1604. It was meant to explain difficult words occurring in books. Its title was "A Table Alphabetical, containing and teaching the true writing and understanding of hard usually English words borrowed from the Hebrew, Greek, Latin or French". The title volume of 120 pages explaining about 3000 words was compiled by one Robert Cowdrey, a schoolmaster.
       The second paragraph shows the aim and the usage of dictionaries.
     The third paragraph studies the main problems in English lexicography.

CHAPTER I.  Lexicology as a linguistic science
1.1. Lexicography is a branch of lexicology
Lexicology is a branch of descriptive linguistics concerned with the linguistics theory and methodology for describing lexical information, often focusing specifically on issues of meaning. Traditionally, lexicology has been mainly concerned with "lexis", i.e lexical collocations and idioms, and lexical semantics, the structure of word fields and meaning components and relations. Until, recently, lexical semantics was conducted separately from study of the syntactic, morphological and phonological properties of words, but linguistic theory in the 1990s has gradually been integrating these dimensions of lexical information.
Lexicology deals with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of the words as the main units of language. The term vocabulary is used to denote the system formed by the sum total of all the words and word equivalent that the language possesses . The term word denotes the basic unit of a given language resulting from the association of a given meaning with a given group of sounds susceptible of a given grammatical employment. The term word equivalent denotes set expression similar to words in so far as they are integrated semantically, not created in speech but introduced onto the act of communication ready-made, and also because they are syntactically treated like single words.
Lexicology came into being to meet the needs of many branches of applied linguistics, namely of lexicography, literary criticism, standardization of terminology and last but not least of foreign language teaching. Its importance in training a would-be teacher of languages is of a quite special character and cannot be overestimated as it helps to stimulate a systematic approach to the facts of vocabulary. It is particularly useful in building up the learner's vocabulary by an affective selection grouping and analysis of new words. It good knowledge of the system of word -formation furnishes a tool helping the student to guess and retain in his memory the meaning of new words on the basis of their motivation and by comparing and contrasting them with the previously learned elements and patterns.
The distinction between the two basically different ways in which language may be viewed, the historical and diachronistic ( gr dia 'through' and chronos 'time') and the descriptive or synchronistic (gr syn together', 'with') is a methodological distinction, a difference of approach, artificially separating for the purpose of study what in real language is inseparable ,because actually every linguistic structure and system exists in a state of constant development.
Synchronic approach deals with the vocabulary as i t exists at a given time, at the present time. The diachronic approach studies the changes and the development of vocabulary in the course of time. Lexicography is a branch of lexicology which studies the vocabulary of a language. Its basic task is to study the origin, the different properties of the vocabulary of a language. It has its own aims and methods of a scientific research.
Lexicology   is   concerned  with  the   words   variable   word   groups, phraseological   units   and   with   morphemes   which   make   up   words. Lexicology also studies all kind of semantic grouping. Etymologically the word "lexicology" is a Greek word: "Lexic ?f means word and " logos" learning.
There are 5 types of lexicology:
1.	General lexicology
2.	Special lexicology
3.	Descriptive lexicology
4.	Historical lexicology
5. Comparative lexicology
General lexicology is a part of a linguistics which studies the general properties of words, the specific feature of words of any any particular language. It studies the pecularities of words, common to all languages .
Special lexicology deals with the words of a definite language. Example: English lexicology, Russian lexicology, Uzbek lexicology and so on.
Descriptive lexicology studies the words at a synchronic aspect. It concerned with the vocabulary of a language as they exist at a present time.
Historical or diachronic lexicology deals with the development of the vocabulary and the changes it has undergone.
In descriptive lexicology the words "to take", to adopt" are considered as being English not differing from such native word as "child", "foot", "stone", etc. Butin historical lexicology they are treated as borrowed words.
Comparative lexicology  deals with the properties of the vocabulary of two or more languages. In comparative lexicology the main characteristic features of the words of two or more languages are compared. Example: English - French lexicology, Russian- English lexicology;
There are two approaches to the study of the vocabulary of a language: Diachronic and Synchronic.
Synchronic approach deals with the vocabulary as it exists at a given time, at a present time.
Diachronic approach studies he changes of the development of vocabulary in the course of time.
Example: Synchronically the word "help", "accept", 'work"- all of them are English words.
But under diachronical analysis it occurs that they came from different languages.
Such words as "childhood", "kingdom", "friendship" were at one time compound words because the suffixes -dom, -hood, -ship were independent words, but synchronically they are derived words, because "dom", and "hood" became suffixes.
Lexicology has some subdivisions such as:
1.	Semasiology (deals with all possible meaning of word);
2.	Word-Formation ( studies all possible ways of the formation of new words in English);
3. Etymology (studies the origin of words);
4.	Phraseology (studies the set expressions, phraseologycal units);
5.	Lexicography (studies compiling dictionaries);
Lexicography, that is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, is an important branch of applied linguistics. 
The essential difference between the two lies in the degree of
systematization and completeness each of them is able to achieve.
Lexicology studies recurring patterns of semantic relationships and of any
formal phonological or grammatical devices by which they may be
rendered. It aims at systematization revealing characteristic features of
words and he main opposition relevant for the vocabulary.
It cannot, however, claim any completeness as regards the units
themselves, because the number of this units being very great,
systematization and completeness could be not achieved simultaneously.
The province of lexicography, on the other hand, is the semantic, formal
and functional description of all individual words. Dictionaries aim at a
more or less complete description, but in so doing cannot attain systematic
treatment, so that every dictionary entry presents, as it were, an
independent problem. Lexicologists sort and present their material
in a sequence depending upon their views concerning the vocabulary, whereas lexicographers have to arrange it most often according to a purely external characteristics, namely alphabetically.
Lexicography depends on its development in the solution of some general problems of lexicology. So, lexicography is closely connected with the problems differently. For example, there is no clear border-line between homonymy and polysemy in different dictionaries. Thus in some dictionaries words such as fly- pashsha (Myxa), (a two winged insect) and fly - tugma uchun material ( a flap of cloth covering the buttons on a garment) are treated as two different words and in others ( example: The Concise Oxford Dictionary and the Advanced learners Dictionary of Current English) - as a different meanings of one of the same word.
In conclusion I can say that, lexicography is an important branch of linguistics, particularly of applied linguistics. And it is one of the branches of lexicology. The essential difference between the two lies in the degree of systematization and completeness each of them is able to achieve.

1.2 The history of English Dictionaries and their development.
        A need for the dictionary or glossary has been felt on the cultural growth of many civilized people at a fairly early period. The history of dictionary- making for the English language goes as far back as the old English period where its firs traces are founds in the fo9rm of glossaries of religious books with interlinear translations from Latin. Regular bilingual English - Latin dictionaries were already in existence in the 15th century . The bilingual dictionary, it must be noted, is associated with foreign language study form time immemorial. The unilingual dictionary is a comparatively recent type.
Other books followed, each longer than the preceding one. The first attempt at a dictionary including all the words of the language, not only the difficult ones, was made by Nathaniel Bailey who in 1721 published the first edition of his "Universal Etymological English Dictionary". He was the first it include pronunciation and etymology.
        Big explanatory dictionaries were created in France and Italy before they appeared for the English language learned academics on the continent had been established to preserve the purity of their respective languages. This was also the purpose of Dr Samuel Johnson`s famous Dictionary published in 1755.    
      It was meant to establish the English language in its classical form, to preserve it in all its glory as used by Dryden, Pope, Addison and their contemporaries. In conformity with the social order of his time S Johnson attempted to "fix" and regulate English.
     This was the period of much discussion about the necessity of "purifying" and " fixing" English, and Johnson wrote that every change was undesirable, even a change for the best. When his work was accomplished, however, he had to admit he had been wrong and confessed in his preface that "no dictionary of a living tongue can ever be prefect, since while it is hastening to publication, some words are budding and falling away".
The most important innovation of Johnson's dictionary was the introduction of illustrations of the meaning of the words "by example from the best writers" as had been done before him in the dictionary of the French Academy.
Johnson, however, only mentioned the authors and never gave any specific references for his quotations. Most probably he reproduced some of his quotations from memory, not always very exactly, which would have been unthinkable in modern Lexicology. The definitions he gave were often very ingenious.
The epithet we gave to lexicographer for instance, is famous even in our time; a lexicographer was ' a writer of dictionaries, harmless drudge*... The dictionary deals with separate words only, almost no set expressions were entered. 
      Pronunciation was not marked because Johnson was keenly aware of the wide variety of the English pronunciation and the thought it possible to set up a standard there; he paid attention only to those aspects of vocabulary where he believed he could improve linguistic usage. As to pronunciation attention was turned to it somewhat later. A pronouncing dictionary that must be mentioned first was published in 1780 by Thomas Sheridan. 
    In 1791 appeared "The critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor of the English language by John Walker, an actor. The vague of this second dictionary was very great, and in later publications Walker's pronunciation was inserted into Johnson's text - a further step to a unilingual dictionary in its present - day form.
      The Golden Age of the English lexicography began in the last quarter of the 19th century when the English Philological Society started work on compiling what is now known as the Oxford English Dictionary "(OED), but was originally named " New English Dictionary on the Historical Principles. It is still occasionally referred to as NED.
The purpose of this monumental work is to trace the development of English words from their form in Old English to show when they were introduced into the language, and also to show the development of each meaning and its historical relation to other meaning of the same word. The dictionary includes spellings, pronunciations and detailed etymologies. The completion of the work required more than 75 years. The result is a kind of encyclopedia of language used not only for reference purposes but also as a basis for lexicological research.
The first part of the Dictionary appeared in 1884 and the last in 1928. Later it was issued in twelve volumes and in order to accommodate new words a supplement was issued in 1933. The success of the enterprise was largely due to its third editor James A.H. Murray, a Scottish schoolmaster, who organized an editor staff and actually started the publication. He served as editor for 38 years but didn't live to see the completion of the whole. As the work progressed three more independent staffs were created to take part in it. They worked under Henry Bradley, William Criagie and C.T Omons.
    The principles, structure and scope of the Oxford Dictionary, its merits and demerits are discussed in many publications1. Its prestige is enormous. It is considered superior of corresponding major dictionaries for other languages.
The Oxford University Press published different abridged versions. The Shorter Oxford English Dirionary2 formerly appeared in two volumes, now printed on thinner paper it is bound in one volume of 2,538 pages. It differs from the complete edition in that it contains a smaller number of quotations. 

     It keeps to all the main principles of historical presentation and covers not only the current literary and colloquial English but also its previous stages.
     Words are both defined and illustrated with the key quotations. The Concise Oxford English Dirionary1 was first published in 1911 i.e. before the work on the main version was completed. It is not a historical dictionary but one of the current usages. A still shorter form is Pocket Oxford Dictionary.
Another big dictionary, also created by joined effort of enthusiasts, is Joseph Wrightt 's "English Dialect Dictionary"2 .
The first American dictionary of English was compiled by a man whose name was also Samuel Johnson. He published in 1798 a small book entitled "A School Dictionary".
It was Noah Webster, universally considered to be the father of American usage of his time. His great work "The American Dictionary of the English Language" appeared in two volumes in 1828 and later sustained numerous revised and enlarged editions. In many respects Webster follows the lead of Dr Johnson (the British Lexicographer). But he has also improved and corrected many of Johnson's etymologies and his definitions are often more exact. Webster attempted to simplify the spelling and pronunciation that were current in the USA of the period. He devoted many years to the collection of words and the preparation of more accurate definitions.
N. Webster associated with many eminent men of his country and took an active share in public life. He realized the importance of language for the development of a nation and devoted his energy to giving the America English the States of an independent language, distinct from the British English. At that time the idea was progressive as it helped the unification of separate states into one powerful federation.

CHAPTER II .Historical and Contemporary variation in Dictionaries
2. 1. Dictionaries and their types
All the kind of variation we find in English today also changes with time. And it is historical change that has created the variation we see about us. These two sorts of language variation - the historical and contemporary - are intimately connected. Indeed, they are the same thing looked at in different ways.
It is the nature of language to change. New discoveries, inventions, experiences - even new ways of looking at old thing - require new words to talk about them. As we rub shoulders with speakers of other language around the world, their languages off on us. As new generations rare born and learn English, and speak a language not quite like that of their parents. And so as the years and generation pass, the language becomes different.
Although many factors combine to effect a change as great as that which converted Old English into Modern English, they are of two main kinds. One sort of change is caused by pressures that exist inside the language system itself. The other sort is the result of the changes in the society that uses the language.
The word cupboard was formed in the fourteenth century as cupperboard, literally " cup - board", a side -board or buffet on which to stack cups. Pressures internal to English caused the "p" sound to be swallowed up by the following "b" and the vowel of the second part to loose stress and be reduced to the neutral vowel schwa: "cubberd" is easier to say. At the same time, changes in living styles moved the storage space for dishes, utensils, and other household items into closets and cabinets, and so cupboard changed its meaning. Cupboard changed its pronunciation because of internal linguistic pressures and its meaning because of external social changes.
Both kinds of change affect all aspects of the English language. The analogy of the past tense form drove for drive helped to create a new past tense dove for the verb dive. Such analogy is a kind of internal pressure. On the other hand, our contact with Russia has introduced such new words as babushka, glasnost, perestroika and the multitude of forms as we have invented using the suffixes –nik. Loanwords reflect external, cultural change. 
Change, due to both internal and external causes, is normal to all living
languages. The only languages that do not change are languages that are not used. Change is not corruption; there is no danger of English dying because it is changing - on the contrary, change is a sign of vitality. On the other hand, change is not improvement. It is simply adoption to internal and external pressures, however much we may like or dislike particular changes.
While a historical change is in progress but not yet complete, alternation ways of using the language are available to us. The effect of historical change is to create contemporary variation. Conversely, contemporary variation is historical change frozen at a moment in time. One task of a dictionary is to record the variation in the contemporary language, to relate it to historical change and to explain to dictionary -users the options they have in choosing among the alternatives before them.
The Cynic Ambrose Bierce defined the dictionary as "a malevolent literary device for cramping the growth of a language and making it hard and in elastic"1. Bierce was wrong. Dictionaries, on the contrary, are properly devices for tracing the past growth of the vocabulary, describing its present extent and options, and giving information from which we can asses its future possibilities. Dictionaries are records of the language's vitality and elasticity.
The term dictionary is used to denote a book listing words of a language with their meanings and often with a data regarding pronunciation, usage and origin.2
Dictionaries came in a variety of sizes and kinds, ranging from the seventeen - volume Oxford English Dictionary, which aims at a full lexicographic historical record of all the works of English to slim pocket -sized booklets. For ordinary purposes, the most useful kind of dictionary is the "College" or "Desk" dictionary, which aims at recording all the vocabulary of English about which most dictionary - users are likely to want information. It tries to answers simply and accurate questions about word. It is in all - reference book about the English vocabulary.
Dictionaries tell us about the individual peculiarities of words. The dictionary is primarily a record of how the words of a language are used by those who speak and write it is as a mother tongue. That record includes what words are used, of they are spelled and pronounced, how they written and spoken forms are divided into syllables, what part of speech they belong to, what irregularities they have inflected forms where they came from and what restrictions limit their use.
      General Dictionaries:
The general dictionary, as stated earlier, covers the total language. The dictionary of any size may be a general dictionary. It contains words from all spheres of human activities and all areas of the life of the speakers of the language.
The general dictionaries are of two types:
(a)	Academic or normative dictionary,
(b)	Referential or overall descriptive dictionary.
      The academic dictionary gives the lexical stock of the standard language. The aim of this dictionary is to present the language as it is expected to be and stop it from decay. It has an eye on the future usage of the language. The selection of entries is done from the works of the creative writers, may be both earlier and contemporary, literature of science, arts etc., newspapers, magazines and other materials which are considered representative of the standard language. These dictionaries do not contain words of local or regional variation. Such words are included in the dictionaries only when they have been used by some writers and have been standardized in the language. Archaic and obsolete words used by creative writers are also included in them. The whole data in the dictionary represents a self contained and homogenous system. The chief feature of such dictionaries is their inclusion of profuse illustrative examples form the corpus with or without citations. Different types of dictionaries including dictionaries of technical terms, grammatical dictionary, the spelling dictionary etc., come under this group.
      Supplementary material in translation dictionaries is in some respects different from that in explanatory dictionaries, so an translation dictionaries given the only translation of a word.
      According to Shcherba a reference dictionary is "one behind which does not lie any unified language consciousness. The collected words may belong to heterogeneous speech groups of different periods and which do not in the least form a system' (Srivastaba 1968. 120).
      The problem arises as to whether a historical dictionary can cover all the works available in a language and give all citations for all the lexical items. No dictionary, whatever be its resources, can afford to give all this. The lexicographer has to choose some workable way for his dictionary. In order to do this, works are at first listed. Then a selection of works as to which of them would form the corpus of the dictionary is done. For selecting works for the dictionary, two considerations govern the decision of the lexicographer: (1) time and (2) the subject or theme. First, certain broad classifications can be made of the entire period. This classification is based on some criterion like some landmark in the history of the development of the language e.g. some outstanding author or some notable literary or other event. Works from all the periods are selected for the dictionary. The lexicographer has to see that all the periods in the history of a language are given due and even attention. No period should be left without proper representation, otherwise it would be impossible to find a coherent semantic development of a lexical item. It has been contended whether a dictionary like OED, which deals with all the periods of the history of the language, can be a true historical dictionary. It is suggested that it would provide more scientific and accurate account of the history of the words of a language if a particular period is taken up and a detailed analysis of all the works of that period is done, rather than taking total history and divide it into some periods and then making generalizations. For this Period Dictionaries dealing with some particular period may be prepared. A dictionary dealing with the entire period of the history of the language may not do justice in presenting full picture of the semantic history of the lexical stock of language.
The second point a lexicographer has to keep in mind while selecting works for a historical dictionary is to see that all the subject fields are equally and evenly represented in the corpus of the dictionary. For this representative works of all the branches of human knowledge available in the language should be analyzed. Variation of region, style and subject matter should be carefully marked and entered in the dictionary. The Sanskrit Dictionary (Poona) has used 1500 books as its source material. Malayalam Lexicon has utilized 7000 works in addition to manuscripts etc. besides these works, even the available dictionaries can be utilized. Kannada Dictionary (Bangalore) analyzed 2000 books and all available inscriptional material. The etymological dictionary, as stated earlier, traces the present word to its oldest form and gives the parent form. The interest of an etymological dictionary is primarily in the pre-history of the language. For arriving at the parent form the lexicographer takes recourse to historical comparative method, wherein on the basis of recurring correspondences of form and meaning of words in different cognate languages, the protoword form or etymon is reconstructed.
In some cased even when the dictionary does not give reconstructed protoforms it may be considered etymological. In these cases a particular point in the development of a language is fixed as a terminal point and the etymologies are traced back to that point. For Indo-Aryan languages this point may be Sanskrit hypothetical or reconstructed forms are given. Sometimes, though it is not scientific, the nearer attested forms are given as the source word. Some dictionaries give only the cognate forms e.g. Dravidian Etymological Dictionary. The etymological dictionaries have been classified in several categories on the basis of the range of coverage, the number of languages covered etc. the most common is the one which classifies the dictionaries on the fact whether the focus of the dictionary is a single language or many languages. The dictionary with one language as focus deals with the lexical items of one language. The entry of the dictionary is given in that language. The origin of the words of this language is traced back to the proto language. In this process cognate forms form related languages are cited. Since the help of comparative method is taken by giving cognate words such dictionaries develop into comparative dictionaries.
In the dictionary which has many languages as its focus the entry word is given in the proto language. The developed forms in different languages are given in the description part of the entry. For borrowings in the language, the etymological dictionary gives the immediate source of the borrowing, its original meaning and forms in cognate languages. If the borrowing is through some other language, the name of the intermediate language and the form therein are also given.
The dictionary of borrowed or foreign word in a language can be included in the class of etymological dictionary, because by giving the origin of these words the dictionary provides clue to classificatory criteria.
Although a typological classification is essential and has been attempted by many writers, it is impossible to delimit the types into a strict watertight frame work. When we analyze any entry from any dictionary we usually find that many characteristics of different types of dictionaries have, been included in it. As we shall see later, there is a large amount of overlapping in different types of dictionaries.
But although there is no clear cut division between the scope and the coverage of the dictionaries, there are dictionaries with definite focus on some major aspect of the language.
We are presenting below the description of different types of dictionaries classified on the above criteria.
Encyclopedic and linguistic Dictionaries:
We start with the degree of the inclusion of lexical (i.e. linguistic) and non-lexical (i.e. encyclopedic) information in the dictionary as also the treatment of each individual item in it.
The lexical or linguistic information pertains to linguistic characteristics of the lexical unit viz., pronunciation, definition, etymology, grammatical category, etc. the encyclopedic information has the following features.
(a)    the inclusion of names of persons, places, and literary works,   ,
(b)   coverage      of      all      branches      of      human      knowledge,
(c)   extensive treatment of facts.
      The dictionaries, giving information of the former type, are called linguistic or general dictionaries and those giving information of the latter type, the encyclopedic dictionaries. But before these are described it would be useful to make a distinction between an encyclopedia and an encyclopedic dictionary. The encyclopedia are more concerned with the concepts and objects of extra linguistic would, that is the things and in a narrow sense they may be called 'thing books'. Information presented in them is under few general topics. Their aim is to present information, as noted earlier, on all aspects of human knowledge. The items presented are more of denotational character including names of plants, animals, diseases. They also give historical events, geographical features, biographical sketches of important personalities. Many items found in linguistic or general dictionaries do not find place in them. Such items are function words, verbal forms, and variety of other words e.g. Eng. he, she, Hindi jaanaa, 'go' agar 'if Eng. father, mother etc. The information provided is more detailed and relates to the history and the description of the item. The encyclopedic dictionary is a combination of an encyclopedia and a linguistic dictionary. It also includes items that are generally characteristic of an encyclopedia in addition to the items of a linguistic dictionary. In the amount of the information and the manner of its presentation, again, it combines the features of both. As a matter of fact, there can be no division like a linguistic dictionary and non-linguistic dictionary equating the latter with encyclopedic dictionary. As already stated any dictionary combines the features of both. The bigger dictionaries like The Century Dictionary, The Oxford English Dictionary, Malayalam Lexicon, Tamil Lexicon, Hindi Sabda Sagaretc, are encyclopedic but all of them are linguistic dictionaries. Even the abridged and concise dictionaries present encyclopedic information in so far as they include proper names and explanation of culture items although it has been contended if proper names (realia) could be included in the purely linguistic dictionaries because it may make the dictionary encyclopedic. (Zgusta 1971, 245-246). So, many dictionaries give them not in the main body of the dictionary but in appendices. An ordinary dictionary includes them only when they attain the status of the common words.
The linguistic dictionary deals with only the lexical stock i.e. words as speech material and may be roughly called 'word book'. The linguistic dictionary usually attains the status of the encyclopedic dictionary in different ways, given below: - when a linguistic definition becomes inadequate to describe the lexical item, especially when it is a culture bound word, the lexicographer has to include encyclopedic information e.g. Malto   kud   phraseological   units   of  the   language  and  are   usually accompanied with illustrative examples,                    (b) Dictionaries of proverbs and idioms: they deal with proverbs and idioms of a language. (c) Dictionaries of neologism: such dictionaries present new words introduced in the language and the new meanings acquired by the existing words. They provide good material for the revision of the dictionaries. The addenda given in some dictionaries is very much nearer to this type of dictionaries.                    (d) Dictionaries of borrowed words: these dictionaries deal with words which are borrowed in the language from time to time. These dictionaries, in a limited sense, come under the class of etymological dictionaries.
Other dictionaries of this class are dictionaries of surname, toponyms, dictionary of false friends, common vocabularies, etc.
Other types of Special Dictionaries:
(1) Exegetic dictionaries: they deal with the text of some author or many authors and are prepared in different ways. A dictionary f this type may cover a particular work of an author e.g. Padmaavata Kosa, of Jayasi, Maanasakosa of Tulasi, Dictionary of the Autobiography of Gorky. Such dictionaries also cover all the works of a particular author, e.g. Dictionary of Shakespeare, Tulasikosa, The Dictionary of Pushkin etc.,
This dictionary contains all the words available in the text or texts. All the meanings of a lexical unit are given with illustrations and the actual places of their occurrence. Sometimes the total number of the occurrences of the lexical unit are also given to show the frequency of the lexical unit. In some dictionaries only the first and the last occurrences are noted. They not only give the lexicographic definitions but also encyclopedic information and include proper names also. These dictionaries provide guidance for understanding the special usages of the lexical units by different authors. They also help in knowing the new words used by writers as also the new meanings attached to the present lexical units. They are useful in preparation of the historical dictionary of a language.
(2) Similar to exegetic dictionaries are what we call concordences wherein all the occurrences of a particular lexical unit are quoted systematically by giving the actual place of occurrence.
(3) Learner's Dictionaries: of late this type of dictionary has been attracting the attention of the lexicographers all over the world. These dictionaries are designed to act as an aid for the learners of languages, both native and foreign, from various angles. These dictionaries are broadly of two types:
(1)	dictionaries meant for the foreign learners,
(2)	Dictionaries meant for native learners.
      Generally, but not exclusively, the name is used for the first type of learners. These dictionaries differ form general dictionaries and word books for the native speakers. The difference lies in the understanding of the problems and needs of the learners. An adult learner of a foreign language might find the use of many very common and simple words difficult. Many words for most commonly used things in daily life are not known to the foreign learners. The native speaker does not face this problem because although his word stock may be poor his language competence is quite sufficient. The Compiler of learners' dictionary has the following two types of users:
(1)	The native speakers, who although having command of the language, need guidance about the correct usage of different words.
(2)	The speaker of the other language whose word-stock is limited and the language competence is very weak. In this case the interference of the native language is kept in mind while preparing the dictionaries.
The   chief characteristic   features   of the   dictionaries   marking  them different from other dictionaries are the following:
(1)	The vocabulary is very limited. The selection of vocabulary items is very carefully done on different scientific principles.
(2)	The emphasis is not on giving all the possible meanings of a lexical unit but its function and the etymology of these words.
       Although the focus of the etymological and historical dictionaries is different, they are not opposed to each other. Each one, on the other hand, can be helpful for the other to get more reliable results. For an etymological dictionary the reconstruction of proto forms gets greater authenticity if they are attested by forms in the earlier stage of the history of the language. This information is made available by the historical dictionary. Again, it is in the historical dictionary that we find what new words are derived form the original word and at what stage Most of the analytical and descriptive dictionaries contain some elements of an etymological dictionary is so far as they give what is the derivation or the origin of the word. In descriptive dictionaries, the etymological analysis helps in solving some of the basic problems of lexicography, Etymology helps in deciding the cases of homonymy and polysemy and in ordering the sequence of the meanings of the pslysemous words by giving the original or basic meaning. Etymology also helps in solving the problem of unclear meanings of some lexical units.
       The synchronic dictionaries are generally grouped into two classes, general and special. General dictionaries contain those words of the language which are of general use representing various spheres of life and presenting a complete picture of the general language. They are meant for the general user of the language. Special dictionaries either cover a specific part of the vocabulary or are prepared with some definite purpose. By general dictionary it should not be understood that it contains the entire lexical stock of the language. No dictionary, except the dictionary of dead languages wherein the possibility of creation of new words is severely restricted, can give all the words of a language. Although the general dictionaries contain general word list some of the special dictionaries with their focus on some particular purpose contain the general word lists. For example, the dictionaries of pronunciation, the reverse dictionaries, the frequency counts have special purpose but their word list is general.
Special Dictionaries:
The special dictionaries may be classed into the following groups on the basis of the nature of their wordlists:
(1) Their covering special geographical regions, social dialects or special spheres of human activity,
(2)	Their formal shape,
(3)	Their semantic aspect and their relational value in the lexical stock of the language
(4)	Their collocational value
(5)	Special language units and others, i

The first group includes the dictionaries of the following: (a), dialects,
(b)	technical terms - glossaries
(c)	special professions, arts and crafts etc.,
(d)	slangs, jargons and argot etc.

(a)	Dialect dictionaries: dialect dictionaries present all the characteristic of a general dictionary in their description of the lexical units. But they deal with the word stock of a particular geographical region or social group. The dictionaries usually contain words not found in the standard language i.e. words which are variations of the standard form, or words whose meanings are restricted to a particular area or social group. The preparation of these dictionaries is generally associated with dialect surveys. The entries are selected form the data collected on the basis of extensive field work, preparation of linguistic atlases, recording of all the regional variations of the lexical units etc. There are different methods of presentation. Sometimes one of the variants is selected as the head word on the basis of standard, frequency and universality of the variant, and all other variants are given in the entry. Such regional or social variations are labeled suitably. The other information provided is regarding the grammatical category, meaning and profuse examples illustrating the use of the lexical units. In some dictionaries all the lexical units are given as head words and their distribution in different regions is shown. Examples are given form these regions. (Wright. 1898). The dialect dictionary may either deal with only one dialect or may contain variations from many dialects. Under the dialect dictionaries may be included the dictionaries of regionalisms. E.g. A Dictionary of Canadianisms.
(b)	The dictionary of technical terms6 deals with technical terms in a language. Terminology is a major and vital part of the vocabulary of any language. These dictionaries are generally prepared by special bodies and commissions formed specially for the purpose. They contain either terms peculiar to a particular subject field or general words with special meanings for special fields.
(c)	Closely related to the dictionaries of technical terms are those of
different professions, trades, crafts, sports etc. These dictionaries present words peculiar to a particular professions e.g. Dictionary of fishing terms etc. Many dictionaries of agriculture terms have been compiled in India, Grieson's Behar Peasant Life is a good example of professional dictionary.
(d) Not very far removed form these dictionaries are the dictionaries of slangs, jargons, argot etc. These dictionaries contain closed set of words used by a particular class of people. These words are either newly coined words or general words with some new special and secret meaning attached to them. In both cases the secrecy of the word is strictly maintained and is considered a taken of group solidarity. Any violations in the norms results in the disowning of the person in the group.
2. Special dictionaries classified on the basis of the formal aspects of the lexical units are of the following types:
(a)	Spelling or orthographical dictionaries,
(b)	Pronouncing dictionaries,
(c)	Word formation dictionaries (including dictionaries of roots, verbs etc.),

d)	Dictionaries of homonyms,
e)	Dictionaries of paronyms,
f)	grammatical dictionaries,
g)	Reverse dictionaries
h) Dictionaries of abbreviations, acronyms etc.
a) Spelling or orthographical dictionaries give spelling of words with their phonetic variants. They give tones, stress and accents also, wherever relevant. To this group belong dictionaries which give information whether words would be written together or separately. These dictionaries are normative in character and are used as reference points for correct spelling. The general dictionaries are also refereed for correct spelling, especially by the foreigners. But the orthographical dictionaries differ from the general dictionaries in not giving any other information than spelling.
(b) Pronouncing dictionaries record contemporary pronunciation. They are also normative and are referred to for correct pronunciation. The information supplied in these dictionaries is different form the general dictionaries. They present variant pronunciation as well as the pronunciation of grammatical forms.
(c) Word formation or derivational dictionaries give different word forming elements viz., prefixes, suffixes etc. Some of the learner's dictionaries attain the nature of word formation dictionaries is so for as they give lists of prefixes and suffixes. To this class belong the dictionaries of roots, verbs etc.
Whitney's Dictionary of Sanskrit verb root belongs to this class. The Dhatupaha of Panini is a dictionary of this group.
The dictionaries of synonyms give the list of synonyms (near synonyms
to be specific) Sometimes this dictionary simply enumerates the different
synonyms of particular lexical items but sometimes they are accompanied
by illustrative examples of the occurrence of the synonyms. Needless to
say the second process is more useful. The dictionaries help in finding the
finer distinctions of meaning of a particular lexical unit in terms of its
relation to the other members of the group. They are useful for he writers
to find about a proper word in writing. For learners these dictionaries are
useful as they provide information on relation of words.
English languages have a rich tradition of the dictionaries of synonyms. Starting from nighan? U, through Amarakosa, Halayudhaand Hemacandra to the present times there is a long history of the compilation of dictionaries of synonyms in the USA. Most of the English languages have a number of dictionaries of synonyms.
The best known of them are: "Dictionary of English Synonyms and Synonymous expression "by R. Soule and "Webster's dictionary of Synonyms".
The dictionaries of antonyms give antonyms of a language and can be useful in finding out finer sense distinction of polysemous and synonymous words.
Ideographical or ideological also called sysetemic dictionaries present words which are semantically related. They are grouped according to concept words or content words. "Lexical items in Ideographic Dictionaries are grouped into families where each one of them stands for one particular psychological dimension" ( Srivastava 1968, 124) . Dictionaries of synonyms are in one sense one of the sub - types of Ideographic Dictionaries.
The dictionaries of the frequency county presents of the lexical units in the language. They usually represent a special corpus of reading material and are useful for the preparation of children's dictionaries, learner's dictionaries, teaching material etc.
4.	Special dictionaries classified on the basis of their collocational   value
are the following:
A.	Dictionaries of collocation: these dictionaries give usual collocations of
lexical units. They give list of all the words that can be collocated with the
head word. But such dictionaries are usually limited in their scope and
present only words of a few grammatical categories viz. nouns, verbs and
adjectives etc. They are useful for language teaching.
B.	Dictionaries of Usages: these dictionaries generally aim at providing
guidelines for the correct and standard use of words and are normative in
character.
5.	Dictionaries of special lexical units are generally the following:
(a)	Dictionaries of phrases or phraseological dictionaries: these dictionaries
present the ko:la-n. 'an earthen pot in which the umbilical cord is
preserved'. Hindi baghnakh, baghnakhaa n. ek aabhuuAan?a jisme N baagh
ke naakhuun caaNdii yaa sone meN mar?he note hEN. 'a type of ornament
in which the nails of a tiger are studded in gold or silver'.
(b)	In the definition of certain words the encyclopedic definition
determines the underlying concept': Coal n. 1. Hard opaque black or
blackish mineral or vegetable matter found in seams or strata below earth's
surface and used as fuel and in manufacture of gas, tar etc., (COD) cf. this
definition with coal n. a black, hard substance that burns and gives off heat.
(Ladder Dictionary)
(c)	when we give different meanings of a polysemous word and mark them
with labels, we give a hint that the meaning belongs to a particular branch
of human knowledge like botany, astronomy, medicine etc,, impliedly
indicating the encyclopedic information there. The same thing happens to
the quotations in illustrative examples with citations. Again, when we just
refer to some work for further details about any type of cultural
information, we give indirectly encyclopedic information.
From the point of view of time the dictionaries can be either diachronic (dynamic) or synchronic (static), the former dealing with words across time and the latter at a particular point of time.
As a matter of fact, it is very difficult to draw a line between diachronic and synchronic dictionaries. Bigger dictionaries of synchronic/descriptive character, for that matter even the smaller ones, have to include at least some amount of historical information. When a dictionary gives the derivative source of a word in form of the origin tag, usually appended to the head word in the lemma, there is an attempt to give, however superficial it may be, the etymology of the word and in this way the dictionary presents elements of diachronic nature. Larger dictionaries of many Indian language, meant for the understanding of the literature of the language, include some words from texts of the earlier period. In these cases the lexicographer has to arrange the different usages of the different senses of a lexical unit in some chronological order and thus the descriptive dictionary attains a historical color. Again, when describing the lexical units of the language, the lexicographer finds some words of rare use or gradually going out of use he makes use of some labels, e.g. archaic, obsolete, obsolescent etc., to describe these words. In doing so he takes his dictionary to the domain of the diachronic one.
Historical and Etymological Dictionaries:
The diachronic or historical dictionary has a special class in it which can be called etymological. Although its focus is also to present the history of a lexical unit, its form and purpose are totally different from historical dictionary and it has a limited readership. Its word list is different from the general dictionaries, even from the historical dictionary and in this regard it comes under special type of dictionaries, described later.
The main function of both the historical dictionary and the etymological dictionary is to present the history of a lexical item. The difference lies in their approach. The historical dictionary records the development of a lexical item in terms of both the form and the meaning of the particular lexical unit, whereas the etymological dictionary presents the origin of words by tracing the present day words to their oldest forms.
The historical dictionary is concerned with a systematic study of changes affecting a lexical unit during its life i.e. within a period from which there is evidence, e.g. in OED from the days of King Alfred to the present time. In order to present these changes in the structure and meaning of a word the lexicographer traces it back to its earliest available occurrence in the literature of the languages and records its development in subsequent stages of the language. In order to do this the lexicographer makes use of all the available works of the language. All the occurrences of the lexical units in different contexts in all works are found out. These contexts are analyzed and compared with each other. By doing this, the lexicographer finds out the different senses of a lexical unit and finer nuances of its meanings. Then these meanings and sub meanings are arranged in chronological order. As for the forms, the changes in their shape is also recorded chronologically.
But this is by no means a simple task. The number of words in a language is very large and changes in case of all the words are difficult to record in all their minor details. Moreover, the semantic changes of individual lexical items are arbitrary and cannot be generalized. As a result the lexicographer has to analyze a large amount of data to find out the semantic changes of a lexical unit.
From the point of view of coverage of languages dictionaries can be monolingual (or explanatory), bilingual, and multilingual. But any type of dictionaries described earlier can be either monolingual or bilingual.
        In a monolingual dictionary both the entry words and their definitions or meanings are given in the same language. They may also be called explanatory dictionaries although the latter term has assumed a special signification. The term monolingual refers to the language only irrespective of the information given it. Some dictionaries may just give the word list and their meanings and may be monolingual dictionary. The explanatory dictionary, on the contrary gives us more information about different aspects of the lexical unit - script, pronunciation, grammar, meaning, etymology and profuse illustrations. These dictionaries are meant for the native speakers and " the target set for creating Explanatory Dictionary aims at native speakers with the view to explain one or the other lexical items which might be half known or totally unknown to them".  Most of the bigger dictionaries in all the well known languages are explanatory nature. The best known of them are follows:
The New English Dictionary; The Shortened Oxford Dictionary ;
Webster New International Dictionary
In a bilingual dictionary the aim of which is to make a foreign understand the language words of one language are explained or defined in another language.
Unilingual dictionaries are further subdivided with regard to itme Diachronic dictionaries, of which the Oxford English Dictionary is the main example, reflect the development of the English vocabulary by recording the history of form and meaning and usage of words.Multilingual or poliglot dictionaries are not numerous. They serve chiefly the purpose of comparing synonyms and terminology in various languages.As a conclusion we can say that different types of dictionaries differ in their aim, in the information they provide and in their size.

2.2. The aim and usage of dictionaries
Dictionaries set the forth options available to users of the languages and give as much information as they can about those options - including the responses they are likely to evoke. That is very ambitious goal. In fact, it is a goal that cannot be achieved completely. English providers and untold wealth of options, reactions of hose options are as diverse as the persons who use English, and both the options and reactions to them are constantly changing.
As all grammars leak, that is, fail to describe completely the regularities in the system of a language. Similarly, all dictionaries have holes. None can hope to present a full account of the English vocabulary because it is too large and too much in flux. The wonder is that dictionaries are able of tell as much as they do and to be accurate as they are.
A college dictionary aims to give reasonable full information about all the words we are apt to encounter in newspapers, but also important technical terms that a user might wish to look up. It aims at being as up - to - date as possible and at giving as accurate information as ever -growing knowledge of the language and the world makes available. It aims at setting forth the main variations in the language and providing such information about them as is necessary for an intelligent choice among the options. New dictionaries have to be made frequently because our language is ever changing as are our reactions to it and our knowledge of the world in which it is used.
To get the most out of a dictionary, its user must know its aims, limitations and method of presenting options.
Among the information in dictionaries are judgments made by speakers and writers of the language concerning what is proper or acceptable. Every one who uses English likes or dislikes some of the options that are available to them. Thus, some persons object to use of to refer to indefinite pronoun like everyone , as in the preceding sentence; others find it normal and convenient use. Some persons regard hopefully in the sense 'it is to be hoped' as in "they are to leave early, hopefully by sit" as ungainly; others think it fills a need. The variation in such opinions is part of the language that dictionaries try to record.
Dictionary users often come to the dictionary to be told what is correct
or incorrect in the language. Within certain limitations, that explanation is reasonable. However, the lexicographers do not make laws about what is right and wrong. Rather they observe now people who speak and write English use the language and what those same people think about the options available to them (acceptability).
When most people use a word and accept it without comment, the lexicographer records tat word without question. When most people do not use a word and reject it as impossible, the lexicographer simply omits it (or enters it with the label archaic or obsolete if it is an older word now used rarely or never). However, when a word is used by some people and not by others, or is accepted as right by some and rejected as wrong by others, the lexicographer records the word and notes the fact is use is restricted in various ways or that opinion about acceptability is divided.
Dictionaries do no tell their users how they ought, to speak and write the English language, but only how they can do so and what other speakers and writers think about the options available to everyone. Grammars and dictionaries are sometimes described as "descriptive" or "perspective", as "permissive or "purist', such dictionaries, however, are false. It is not the business of a dictionary either to give permission or to uphold pure standards. Nor is it its business to proscribe what people should do or to describe uses without reference to the reactions that others may have to those uses.
In conclusion I can say that dictionaries do not tell their users how they ought to speak and write the English language, but only how they can do so.The richest lexicography in the world is the English lexicography.1 And we come across to many problems connected with the selection of head - words, the arrangement and contents of the vocabulary entry, the principles   of   sense   definitions   and   the   semantic   and   functional classification of words.2
In the first place it is the problem of how far a general descriptive dictionary, whether unilingual or bilingual, should admit the historical element. In fact, the term " current usage" is disconcertingly elastic, it may include all words and senses used by Shakespeare, as he is commonly read or include only those of the fossilized words that are kept in some set expressions or familiar quotations a distinctly modern criterion in selection of entries in the frequency of the words to be included. This is especially important for certain lines of practical work in preparing graced elementary text books.
A dictionary is the most widely used reference book in English homes and business offices. Correct pronunciation, spelling are of great social importance because they are necessary for efficient communication.
A bilingual dictionary is useful to several kind of people:
To those who study the foreign language, to specialists reading foreign literature, to translators, to travelers, to linguists;
It may have two principal purposes:
a)	reference for translation;
b)	Guidance for expression;
It must provide and adequate translation in the target language of every word and expression the source language. The  entries  of  a  dictionary  are  usually  arranged  in  alphabetical  order, except  that  derivatives  and  compounds  are  given  under  the  same  head word.1
      Different  types  of  dictionaries  differ  in  their  aim,  in  the  information  they
provide,  and in  their  size.  They  differ  in  their  structure  and  content  of  the entry.
The connection of lexicology and lexicography can be illustrated in the discussion of the number of vocabulary units in Modern English. All the words and phraseological units existing in the language are said to be recorded in dictionaries. Different dictionaries register different number of words. The entries even in the most comprehensive dictionaries range from 500,000 to 800,000.
      The problem of vocabulary counts is closely connected with the divergent - views concerning the nature of basic vocabulary units and also with difference in the approach of dictionary compilers to some of the criciar problems of lexicological science.
Counting up the entries in the dictionaries we are struck by the basically different approach to the vocabulary units as such and one and the same lexical item, say seal is treated differently in different dictionaries, some regarding it as one word and some as five different words. One and the same phrase by chance is included entry under the head word chance in the dictionary, but is not to be found in another dictionary approximately the same size.
The selection and the number of vocabulary units to be included In the  dictionaries  also  depends  on the  aims   set  before  dictionary compilers.
The dictionaries whose object is to present a picture of spoken and written Modern English, contain about 75,000 entries. It is also supposed to contain all the inflectional, derivational, semantic and syntactic information that its reader might ever need and also information on spelling and pronunciation.
The number of bilingual dictionaries for various branches of knowledge and engineering is ever increasing.
A completely new type are the machine translation dictionaries which present their own specific problems, naturally differing from those presented bilingual dictionaries for human translation. It is highly probable, however, that their development will eventually lead to improving dictionaries by general use.
The very first uncertainty a lexicographer has to solve and a dictionary users has to cope with is the decision about what is the same word and what are different words.1 Are an ear of corn and the ear with which we pear the same or different words. Are the head of a river and the head on a body the same or different? Are run the noun and run the same or different words? Are a and an the same or different words?
It is generally agreed that if two different forms have different meanings, they are different words. So flour, and flower, which are spelled differently even though they are generally pronounced alike, are different words.
However, when there is an overlap of either form or meaning we have to be careful. Different forms for the same meaning may be different words - synonyms, such as sphere and globe. Those forms are different words because, although they can refer to the same basic thing, they have distinct uses: we can talk about "social sphere" but hardly about "social globe".
Sometimes, however, different forms for the same meaning may be variants of the same word such as a and an. Those forms are the same words, because, although they are pronounced and spelled differently, they are used in exactly the same way, except that a comes before words beginning with a consonant and an beginning with a vowel. There is no meaningful difference in their uses, so they are not different. In such cases, only one form is given full treatment, and the other is referenced to it.  When there is one form but two different meanings, we say that there are two words that are homonyms, such as die 'become dead and die' a tool used for shaping something.
 These two die's are so different in meaning , what we are unwilling to say they are the same word.
      When however, the meanings are more alike, the decision can be difficult. What about the head of a river and on a body? Or an ear of corn and for hearing? In both cases, we can think of a similarity between the two senses. The head or source of a river is in a sense at the "top" of it just as the head on a body is. An ear of corn sticks out from the plant just as an ear does from a body.
To avoid arbitrary decisions in such cases, lexicographers often rely on history. The two meanings of ear are from different historical sources. The ear of corn comes from an Anglo - Saxon word aer; the ear for hearing, from the Anglo - Saxon word eare. Through historical development they have come to be pronounced and spelled alike, and any similarity in their meaning is accidental. And so they, like the two die's, are said to be homonyms, different words with the same form.
On the other hand, the two meanings of head are historical developments of one sense - the head of a river is indeed a metaphor based on the human body. It therefore is said to be a casa of polysemy, one word with several meanings.
The case of run, the noun, and run, the verb, is more problematical. Some dictionaries regard any forms belonging to different parts of speech as different words. Others, however, including this one, treat the two form as the same word provided they are closely related in meaning and have a common origin. Thus run is also example of polysemy.
The most important problems lexicographer came across in compiling dictionaries are the selection of words, the selection, arrangement and definition of meaning, and the illustrative examples to be supplied.
The semantic structure of words and the semantic system of a vocabulary depend on many linguistics, historical and cultural factors.
In explanatory dictionaries of the synchronic type the entry usually presents the following data:

Spelling pronunciation
Grammatical characteristics
Meanings, illustrative examples
Derivatives The order and the number of this items may vary. Not all of them are to be found in every word book of this type.
Pronunciation is shown either by means of International Phonetic
Transcription  or  in  British  Phonetic  Notation  which  is  somewhat different in each of the larger reference - book.
For example: /: / is indicated in different dictionaries as ah, aw, o, or and so on.
Many word - books transcribe only the combination of letters that do not conform to the rules of reading. For example: in the word forget COD indicates only the pronunciation of the letter. Grammatical information includes the indication of the part of speech, of the head word and its derivatives, the transitivity or intransitivity of verbs or irregular grammatical forms.
The meaning of the word are usually conveyed to the user with the help of extended definitions or by means of synonyms; the definitions of two meanings of the verb;
Arrive - come to destination or end of journey. Within the entry the explanatory dictionaries of the synchronic type are expected to give priority of place to the more common and widely used meanings, few compilers adopt this principle.
Illustrative examples are either citation from literary sources or sentences invented by compilers. The number and nature of examples depend on the size and purpose of the word book.
By way of illustration we shall consider following entries for the word awful.
I.N.C. Wyld. The Universal Dictionary of the English language.
1.	a) apt to fill others with awe, inspiring awe; dreadful, appalling;
b) deserving  and  inspiring  respect  and  reverence,  solemnly impressive awful dignity.
2. (colloq) used as a mere intensive; an awful nuisance; awful nonsense.
II.	The Consise Oxford Dictionary
Awful
Inspiring awe, worthy of profound respect; solemnly impressive, (arch) reverential; (si - notable in its kind as - scrawl, bore, relief, something)
III.	The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English
Awful
1. dreadful, impressive, causing awe,
               2. (colloq intensive) very bad, very great; extreme of its kind, want 
                   an -  nuisance! What ~ handwriting!  
IV.	Collin's New English Dictionary
Awful
Full of awe; filling with fear and admiration; impressive, venerable; ugly; unsightly; exteremely
V.	Webster's New World Dictionary of the American Language
Awful
1.	inspiring awe
2.	terrifying, appalling
3.	worthy of reverence and solemn respect
4.	(colloq) a) a very bad, ugly, disagreeable; unpleasant etc; as an awful joke; b) great as an, awful fore.
For the purpose of a dictionary , which must not be too bulky, selection between scientific and technical terms is also a very important task. It is a debatable point whether a unulingual explanatory dictionary should strive to cover all the words of the language, and note with impartial accuracy all the words actually used by English people; Dictionary - makers should attempt to improve and stabilize the English vocabulary according to the best classical temples and advise the readers on preferable usage. A distinctly modern criterion in selection of entries is the frequency of the words to be included.
When the problem of the selection is settled, there is the question as to which of the selected units have the right to the separate entry and which are to be included under one common head word.
These are, the questions of separateness and sameness of words. The first deals with syntagmatic boundaries of word - units and has to solve such questions as whether each other is a group of two separate words to be treated separately under the head- word each and other or whether each other is a unit deserving a special entry.
As to the sameness this deals with the paradigmatic boundaries. How many entries are justified for hound? COD has two - one for the noun and one for the verb. The noun and the verb are thus treated as homonyms
Chamber's Dictionary combines them under one head -word, i.e. it takes them as variants of the same word.
A descriptive dictionary dealing with the current usage has to face its own specific problems. It has to apply a structural point of view and give precedence to the most important meanings. But how is the most important meaning determined upon? So far each compiler was guided by his own personal preference.
There is also lexicographic problem of definitions in a unnilingual dictionary. The explanation of the meaning may be achieved by a group of synonyms which together give a fairly general idea; but one synonym is never sufficient for the purpose because no absolute synonyms exist. Besides, if synonyms are the only type of explanation used, the reader will be placed in a vicious circle of synonymic references, with not a single word actually explained. Definitions serve the purpose much better. These are of two main types. If they are only concerned with things for which words are names, they are termed encyclopedic. The meaning of the word may be also explained by examples, i.e. contextually. The term and the definition are here used.
As conclusion we can say that the most important problems in lexicology are the selection of words, the arrangement of the vocabulary entry.

CONCLUSION
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics. Lexicology deals with the vocabulary of a language and the properties of the words as the main units of language. And lexicography is one of its subdivisions, that is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.
The history of English lexicography is in its way one of the most remarkable developments in linguistics and therefore worthy of special definition. And the historical change in English lexicography is to create contemporary variation. The purpose of studying historical development of English lexicography purpose of is to trace the development of each meaning.
Dictionary is a book dealing with the individual words of a language (or certain specified class of them) so as to set forth their orthography, pronunciation, signification and use; their synonyms, derivation and history, or at least some of these facts, for convenience of reference the words are arranged in some stated order, now in most languages , alphabetical and in larger dictionaries the information given in illustrated by quotations from literature.
There are following types of dictionaries with definite focus on major aspects of the language:
Encyclopedic and Linguistic Dictionaries
Historical and Etymological Dictionaries Special Dictionaries
General Dictionaries 
Different types of dictionaries differ in their aim, in the information they provide and their size.
Dictionaries do no tell their users how they ought, to speak and write the English language, but only how they can do so. And dictionary - users are to be told what is correct or incorrect in the language.

The most important problem of lexicology is the selection of words, the arrangement and definition of meaning and the arrangement of the vocabulary entry.
Lexicographical research has gone so far today, but much is lying ahead to be done and that needs more effort from the side of lexicographers to promote the lexicographic research further and we hope we'll have more types of dictionaries for everyday use and they will be under stable and helpful.

The list of used literature
1.	Arnold I.V. "The English Word", Moscow, 1985
2.	Buranov J.B., Mominov O.M. "A practical course of English Lexicology", Tashkent, 1990
3.	Fowler H. W. "The Concise Oxford Dictionary", Oxford, 1944
4.	David B. Guralnik "Webster's New World Dictionary"
5.	Gak V.J. "Sopostovitelnaya lexicologiya" M., 1977
6.	Ginsburg R. S., Khidekel S. S., Knyaseva G.V "Acourse in Modern lexicology"
7.	Joseph Wright "The English Dialect Dictionary" London -New York, 1898
8.	Little W., Fowler H. W. and Jessie Coulson " The Shorter Oxford Dictionary on Historical Principles" 1956
9.	Malakhovskiy L.V. "The most comprehensive treaty is the thesis" L., 1956
10.	Rodgerd Tesaurus of English words and Phrases was first published in 1852
11.	Samuel Johson "Dictionary of the English language" London, 2volumes, 1954
12.	Shanskiy N.M. "Leksikologiya Sovremennogo russkogo Yazika", Moskva.
13.	Sherba L.V. "Obshiye Teorii Lexikografii", 1944
14.	Smirnitskiy A.I. "Kurs Lektsii po Leksikologii",1962
15.	Webster's New International Dictionary of The English Language", 1961